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ADOLESCENT
PELVIC PAIN
Jami Goodwin, MD
DISCLOSURE OF FINANCIAL INFORMATION
I, Jami Goodwin,
DO NOT have a financial interest/arrangement or affiliation with one or more
organizations that could be perceived as a real or apparent conflict of
interest in the context of the subject of this presentation.
BACKGROUND
Pelvic pain is a common and significant problem in women
15% in the general population
Main indication in 12% of hysterectomies
60% of laparoscopies
In adolescents 3-5% of all visits to PCP are for complaints of abdominal pain
Chronic pelvic pain can lead to significant physical and cognitive disability
Patients become frustrated with the ongoing nature of symptoms and difficulty in obtaining a definitive diagnosis with relief
of symptoms
Often involve numerous physicians including pediatricians, family practice, gynecologists, emergency medicine and
psychiatrists
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
ACUTE
CHRONIC-CYCLIC
CHRONIC- NON-CYCLIC
PID
Dysmenorrhea
Endometriosis
Ectopic
Mittelschmerz
PID
Adnexal torsion
Endometriosis
Ovarian Mass
Ruptured Ovarian Cyst
Torsion
Adhesions
Hemorrhagic Corpus Luteal cyst
Obstructive Mullerian Duct
Anomalies
Constipation
Appendicitis
Inflammatory Bowel
Gastroenteritis
IBS
Bowel Obstruction
Bowel infection
UTI
Urolithiasis
Urolithiasis
Musculoskeletal
Pyelonephritis
Psychosomatic
BACKGROUND
Pelvic pain in adolescents can be even more challenging for health care providers
Treatment requires knowledge of the developmental stages accompanying puberty
Changes in the body due to thelarche menarche and adrenarche
Psychological changes as an adolescent’s sense of self and body image develops
Reluctancy to obtain gynecologic history or perform pelvic examination
Increasing independence from parents affecting physician-patient relationship
CONFIDENTIALITY
Major concern in the delivery of health care to all adolescents, but there are special
considerations to those that are minors
Physicians should address confidentiality issues with every adolescent patient to build
a trusting relationship with her and to facilitate a candid discussion with her
regarding her health and health related behaviors
Physicians who treat minors have an ethical duty to promote autonomy of minor
patients by involving them in the medical decision making process
CONFIDENTIALITY
Physicians also should discuss confidentiality issues with the parent or guardian of the
adolescent patient. Physicians should encourage their involvement in the patient’s
health and health care decisions and when appropriate facilitate communication
between the two.
When minors request confidential services, encouragement to involve their parents is
helpful
Includes making efforts to obtain the minor’s reasons for not involving their parents
Correcting misconceptions that may be motivating their objections
For minors mature enough to be unaccompanied by their parents for their exam,
confidentiality of information disclosed during an exam, interview, or in counseling
should be maintained
CONFIDENTIALITY
Physicians should be familiar with state and local laws that affect the rights of minors
to receive health care services and to give their own consent for health care
Physicians should also be familiar with the federal and state laws that affect
confidentiality in the provision of health care to adolescents, including the HIPAA
Privacy rule
TENNESSEE LAWS
CONSENT
The general rule is that a physician must obtain parental consent before treating a
minor patient. All efforts should be made to obtain consent from a parent or legal
guardian. Otherwise, there may not be informed consent.
In the absence of informed consent, battery is committed
HIPAA does not address a minor’s right to consent to treatment without a parent’s
consent
TENNESSEE LAWS
HIPAA AND MINORS
Parental access to minor’s PHIParents are recognized as personal representatives of unemancipated minors. There
are exceptions to the parental access of minor’s PHI
State or other law does not require parental consent in order for a minor to obtain a health service. If
the minor consents, the parent is not the personal representative
When a court authorizes someone other than the parent to make decisions for the minor. The parent is
not the personal representative
When the parent assents to the confidential relationship between physician and minor
When a physician believes that the disclosure of the information endangers a child access is denied.
EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE
COMMON LAW
Mature Minor Doctrine
In the absence of appropriate parental consent, courts will look to “the age ability, experience,
education , training, and degree of maturity or judgment obtained by the minor at the time.”
The court will basically look at the facts to determine if the minor was aware of the risks and benefits of the treatment
Cardwell analysis “The Rule of Sevens”
Under age 7 – no capacity to consent
Age 7-14- rebuttable presumption of no capacity
Age 14+ - rebuttable presumption of capacity
In Cardwell, the TN Supreme court found informed consent existed and therefore no battery occurred when a minor female
(17+7) consented to back manipulation therapy
HIPAA AND THE “RULE OF SEVENS”
If the minor has no capacity to consent, then the parent would have access to the HPI
If the minor has a rebuttable presumption of no capacity and is found not to have the
capacity, the parent would have access to HPI
If the minor has the rebuttable presumption of capacity to consent, then the parent
would not have access to the minor’s HPI
EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE
Per state law, parental consent is not required for treatment of a minor in certain
circumstances and would therefore not have access to PHI
Minors with children
Contraceptives
Sterilization (if married)
Juvenile Drug Users
Emergency- physicians discretion
Prenatal care
STDs- including examination, diagnosis and treatment
INTERVIEWING ADOLESCENTS
Establish rapport- ideally a visit for pelvic pain would not be the first
of rapport is already grounded
meeting and a sense
Good eye contact
Nodding at important points
Allow for silence
Mirror patient actions
Avoid judgmental terminology
Important to establish that the adolescent is the patient and her feelings and views are most
important
Confidentiality- ensuring the patient and parents understand expectations
Separating the Adolescent and parent
HISTORY AND PHYSICAL
Similar to adult history taking asking questions about
Character
Intensity
Timing
Location
Radiation
Duration
The chronology of different symptoms is also important
Relationship to menstrual cycle
GI symptoms
Urinary symptoms
HISTORY AND PHYSICAL
Significant PMH and Family history
Sexual history
Activity
Dyspareunia
Pregnancy
Sexual or physical abuse
Previous medical or surgical treatments and responses
Impact of pain on everyday life
PHYSICAL
Abdominal exam
Begin by asking the patient to point to site of the pain
Remember to examine for any scars, hernias or masses
Musculoskeletal
Rule out scoliosis
Difference in limb length
Pelvic exam
External genitalia
Vaginal patency
Lesions
Trauma
Urethra
Rectal exam
Bimanual Exam
Speculum Exam
Discharge
Posterior cul-de-sac tenderness
Pelvic floor tenderness
Anterior wall tenderness
(Avoided in virginal girls)
Vaginal patency
Discharge
(Useful in younger teenagers)
Localization of tenderness
Evaluation of the posterior cul-de-sac
WORK UP
Laboratory tests including
UPT
UA/CX
Cultures in sexually active patients
TVUS
IF unable to perform adequate pelvic exam or anomaly suspected
Diagnostic Laparoscopy
For refractory cases of pelvic pain, can often lead to precise diagnosis
LAPAROSCOPIC FINDINGS IN ADOLESCENTS WITH
CPP
Finding
Rate
Normal Pelvis
25-40%
Endometriosis
38-45%
Ovarian Cyst
2-5%
Uterine Malformation
5-8%
Postoperative Adhesions
4-13%
Pelvic Inflammation
5-15%
Other
2%
DYSMENORRHEA
Defined as severe, cramping pain in the lower abdomen that occurs during and /or
prior to menses
Pain may occur in the lower back
May be associated with nausea or vomiting
Accompanying Headache
Common problem in adolescent females
Prevalence ranging from 40-90%
Significant cause of school and work absence
up to 14% age 12-17, 42% college aged
PRIMARY DYSMENORRHEA
Classified as primary when no pelvic pathology is evident to cause painful
menstruation
Diagnosis of exclusion
Women under 20
Rate increases with age in adolescence attributable to increasing ovulatory cycles
Usually present with symptoms 6-12 months following menarche
Pain is associated with menstrual flow
PATHOGENESIS
Attributed to the presence of prostaglandins via cyclooxygenase and lipooxygenase
pathways.
PG produced by the endometrium to promote vasoconstriction and myometrial contraction
Leads to ischemia of the endometrial lining
Other associated factors
Family history
Early menarche
Increased duration of menses
Smoking
SECONDARY DYSMENORRHEA
Presents similarly to primary dysmenorrhea, starts at a later age
Diagnosed when there is pelvic pathology believed to be the etiology of the pain
Prior cervical surgery
Menorrhagia
Excessive vaginal discharge
Common causes in adolescents include
Endometriosis
Congenital malformations
Cervical stenosis
Infections
DYSMENORRHEA TREATMENT
NSAIDS-prostaglandin synthetase inhibitors
Initially prescribed on an as needed basis
May need to use scheduled dosing
Alternative regimens
OCPS- thin the endometrial lining and decrease PG production
Ideal in adolescents also desiring contraception
ENDOMETRIOSIS
Estimated incidence in menarchal females ranges from 4-17%
Of adolescents with pelvic pain not controlled by medical management the incidence has been shown
to be as high as 60-70% at the time of laparoscopy
Majority present with stage one disease
Adolescents can present with either acyclic or cyclic pelvic pain
Dysmenorrhea, abnormal uterine bleeding, and deep dyspareunia are other common symptoms
GI or bladder symptoms
Unlikely to present with the classic triad of dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, and infertility
ENDOMETRIOSIS
Symptom
Incidence
Cyclic and Acyclic Pain
62-95%
Acyclic Pain
28%
Cyclic Pain
9.4%
Dysmenorrhea
95%
Deep Dyspareunia
29%
Irregular Menses
9-25%
GI pain/nausea
34-43%
Urinary Symptoms
12.5%
Vaginal Discharge
6%
ENDOMETRIOSIS
Pelvic Exam
May not detect abnormalities
Can range from normal to generalized pelvic tenderness
Endometriomas are less common in females under 20
Recto-vaginal exam may reveal focal tenderness in the posterior cul-de-sac or nodularity of the
uterosacral ligaments
Treatment
NSAIDS
OCPS
Laparoscopy
Clear papules and red lesions more likely in younger patients
ENDOMETRIOSIS
CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
Congenital anomalies with genital tract obstruction can present with severe cyclic
pelvic pain
Estimated incidence of 3%
Most present within few months to years after the onset of menses
Pts with Imperforate hymen or a transverse vaginal septum may present with primary
amenorrhea
Imperforate hymen- perineal bulge due to hematocolpos
Vaginal septum- normal hymen with a short vagina posteriorly, slight bulge
CONGENITAL ANOMALIES
Menstruating females with anomalies present with normal menses and pain due to
obstruction of menstrual flow
Unicornuate uterus with a noncommunicating obstructed uterine horn
Uterine didelphys with obstructed hemivagina
Diagnosed with US and confirmed by MRI
Surgical management required for both conditions
Resection of the noncommunicating horn
Excision of the vaginal septum with creation of a single vaginal vault
UTERINE DIDELPHYS WITH OBSTRUCTED
HEMIVAGINA
OVARIAN CYSTS
Ovulation begin 6-12 months after menarche
The period following the initiation of ovulation is associated with dysfunctional ovulation and ovarian
cysts
Preovulatory follicles measuring less than 2 cm are common
A study of 130 adolescents who underwent serial ultrasounds during the follicular phase found cysts in 17 girls, all but 2 resolving
over time
Adolescents may present with cyclical pain, irregular menses and dysmenorrhea
Pelvic exam, UPT, cultures
Weight loss, nausea, bloating or palpable mass can suggest neoplasm
Most common ovarian tumor= mature teratoma
Sudden onset of pain could suggest torsion
OVARIAN CYSTS
Ultrasonography is useful for evaluation of a suspected mass as well as monitoring
the mass over time
Adnexal masses should be conservatively
Most functional cysts will usually regress after 2 or 3 cycles
Treatment
Hormonal therapy has not been shown to improve regression rates of ovarian cysts vs expectant
management
If cysts do not regress over several cycles, surgical diagnosis is warranted
PELVIC ADHESIVE DISEASE
Role of adhesions in chronic pelvic pain is controversial
Commonly detected at the time of surgical exploration of patients with chronic pelvic
or abdominal pain
Can occur secondary to a previous operation, however, adolescents typically have an
unremarkable past surgical history
Though adhesions may play an etiologic role in pelvic pain, they often do not
produce pain
The prevalence rate of adhesions in asymptomatic women undergoing separate laparoscopic
procedure for sterilization is 14%
More likely to play a role when they limit the mobility of intra-peritoneal organs
ADHESIOLYSIS
Controversial treatment
Results from trials are mixed
Patients with dense bowel adhesions show the most improvement in pain post surgery
Overall approximately 40% of women with a
chronic pain syndrome report some
improvement in their pain
PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE
Acute infection of the upper genital tract involving any or all of the uterus, tubes,
ovaries as well as other pelvic organs including bowel
Major cause of infectious morbidity in females 15-25 years old
Aggressive diagnosis and treatment in adolescent patients needed to avoid long term
sequelae including infertility, chronic pelvic pain and ectopic pregnancy
Many cases may go unrecognized and untreated due to minimal symptomatology
PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE
Adolescents at an increased risk for several reasons
Lower levels of protective antibodies due to lack of exposure to pathogens
Higher prevalence of N. gonorrhea, C. trachomatis in the younger population
Greater penetrability of their often anovulatory cervical mucous
Larger zones of cervical ectopy with more columnar cells for which infectious agents have greater
affinity
High risk behavior
Less consistent use of condoms
Concurrent use of alcohol or drugs during sexual activity
Risk doubles in those with coitarche prior to 16 years old
CDC GUIDELINES FOR DIAGNOSIS
Minimal Criteria:
Lower abdominal tenderness
Adnexal tenderness
Cervical motion tenderness
Additional Criteria
Oral temperature > 101
Abnormal vaginal or cervical discharge
Elevated Sed rate
Elevated C-reactive protein
Lab documentation of cervical infection with N. Gonorrhea or C. Trachomatis
Definitive Criteria
Histopathologic evidence of endometritis on endometrial biopsy
US showing thickened fluid-filled tubes or tubo-ovarian abscess
Laparoscopic abnormalities consistent with PID
TREATMENT OF PID
Empiric treatment for PID should be initiated as soon as the diagnosis is suspected
CDC Guidelines for Hospitalization
Surgical emergency, such as appendicitis or adnexal torsion
Pregnancy
No response or unable to tolerate therapy
Severe illness with nausea and vomiting or high fever
Immunodeficiency
CDC GUIDELINES FOR TREATMENT
Parental therapy:
Regimen A:
Cefotetan 2g IV every 12 hours OR Cefoxitan 2g IV every 6 hours
PLUS
Doxycycline 100mg IV every 12 hours until improved, followed by Doxycycline 100mg PO BID to
complete 14 days
Regimen B
Clindamycin 900mg IV every 8 hours
Plus
Gentamicin loading dose 2mg/kg followed by maintenance dose 1.5mg/kg every 8 hours until
improved followed by doxycycline 100 mg oral BID to complete 14 days
CDC GUIDELINES ORAL THERAPY
Regimen A
Ofloxacin 400 mg BID x 14 days
PLUS
Flagyl 500 mg BID x 14 days
Regimen B
Ceftriaxone 250 mg IM once
OR
Cefoxitin 2mg IM plus Probenecid 1g orally in a single dose concurrently once
OR
Other parental third generation cephalosporin
PLUS
Doxycycline 100mg orally BID x 14 days
MUSCULOSKELETAL
Can contribute to chronic pelvic pain
Very little regarding this in pediatric and adolescent literature
May develop as a response to an initial gyn problem or develop primarily
Common problems include
Shortening and spasm of the psoas muscle
Shortening of the abdominal muscles
Abnormal posture including increased lumbar lordosis and an anterior tilt of the pelvis
If left untreated may induce tissue damage that results in trigger points.
MUSCULOSKELETAL
Physical Exam
Attempt to isolate areas of hypersensitivity
Single finger palpation to find trigger points starting in the dermatomal area closest to the pain
When pain is reproduced the lower extremity should be elevated to flex the rectus abdominus
Pain of visceral origin is usually not reproduced in this way.
Trigger points may also be identified during a single digit pelvic exam of the lateral wall of the
vagina and lateral fornices
The injection of 0.25% bupivacaine into the trigger points can be both diagnostic and therapeutic
IN one study of 122 pt undergoing trigger point injections with 3-5 ml of bupivacaine, 89% had relief or improvement with no
further treatment required.
PT with emphasis on the pelvis can also be beneficial
IRRITABLE BOWEL SYNDROME
IBS is defined as chronic abdominal pain usually in the lower segment and disturbed
defecation in the absence of structural or biochemical abnormalities.
Approximately 15-20% of adolescents have symptoms consistent with IBS
Thought to be a result of the dysregulation of brain-gut interactions leading to
altered perceptions of pain
Diagnosis of exclusion with symptoms present for at least 12 weeks within the
previous 12 months
IBS
Psychosocial factors such as early life experiences, physical stress, personal and
social coping systems and psychological stress influence the expression of symptoms
and illness behavior
A high prevalence of prior physical and sexual abuse has been reported in women
with IBS compared with organic disorders
Psychiatric co-morbidities including anxiety, depression and adjustment disorders are
prevalent.
Treatment should be aimed at both reassurance and symptom relief.
IBS
Medical management should be directed at alleviating the predominant symptoms.
Antispasmodics are the most frequently used medications
Anticholinergic effects relax smooth muscle
TCAs and SSRIs can be used for the symptomatic treatment of pain
Reserved for patients with severe or refractory pain
Fiber bulking agents or antidiarrheals used for stool symptoms
Psychological and behavioral options including referral to a mental health specialist
can be helpful
PSYCHOSOMATIC
Psychosocial stressors can cause chronic, recurrent pelvic pain
Can originate from a single, traumatic event or can be the result of chronic stress
Adolescents are particularly prone to dwell on their bodies given all the
developmental changes and new stressors
Coping mechanisms are developing and are influenced by chronic stress, family
coping style, and lifestyle.
The adolescent who does nothing when faced with stress is more likely to suffer organic symptoms when
faced with chronic stress
Have a heightened awareness of internal bodily sensations
PSYCHOSOMATIC
Initial management approach should be the same as with organic causes of CPP
Care should be taken to reassure the patient that the physician believes the symptoms
are real and the physician is going to do all that is necessary to find the cause
RCT comparing patients considered for organic and psychosocial causes of pain at the initial visit with
patients considered for psychosocial issues only after organic pathology had been ruled out showed
the former group not only had better responses to therapy but also improved long term outcomes.
Symptomatic treatment, frequent visits, and psychosocial referral are helpful
CONCLUSION
Pelvic pain is a significant problem that can pose a significant challenge to health
care providers
In adolescents, evaluation requires not only knowledge of etiologies but insight into
the stages of adolescent development.
Establishing a good rapport can facilitate a thorough history and physical and
provide good information without having to use extensive diagnostic studies
Both gyn and non-gyn diagnoses should be considered
Early diagnosis and management can vastly improve daily life and improve future
reproductive health outcomes.
REFERENCES
Ehrman WG, Matson SC. Approach to adolescents on serious or sensitive issues. Pediatr Clin North Am.
1998;45:189–204.
Peters AAW, van Dorst E, Jellis B, et al: A randomized clinical trial to compare two different approaches in
women with chronic pelvic pain. J Obstetrics and Gynecology 77:740, 1991
Song AH, Advincula AP. Adolescent chronic pelvic pain. J Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. 2005; 18 (6) :
371-377
Stone SC: Pelvic pain in children and adolescents. Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. SE Carpenter and JA
Rock New York, Raven Press Ltd, 1992 pp267-78
http://www.tnmed.org/uploadedFiles/Stay_Informed/Resources/Legal_Resources/Law_Guides/Minors,%20Tr
eatment%20of%204.pdf?__taxonomyid=195
Guidelines for Adolescent Health Care. Second Edition. ACOG
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