Transcript I. Theories of Motivation A. Evolutionary Theory: organisms are born

Motivation
Motivation: an internal energetic condition that activates
goal-oriented behavior and gives it direction.
I. Theories of Motivation
A. Evolutionary Theory: organisms are born with
preprogrammed tendencies to respond to certain events in
certain ways.
1) Instinct: an inherited disposition within a species to
activate specific behavior patterns that are designed to
reach specific goals.
B. Drive Reduction Theory: organisms learn to engage in
behaviors that have the effect of reducing drives.
1) Drive: a state of unrest or irritation that energizes one
behavior after another until one of them removes the irritation.
C. Homeostasis Theory: organisms consciously and
automatically function to maintain an optimum level of
biological conditions.
D. Incentive Theory: external stimuli pull organisms toward
certain behaviors.
E. Optimal Arousal Theory: the assumption that there is an
optimal level of arousal that organisms strive to maintain.
When arousal exceeds the optimal level, an organism has the
tendency to withdraw from the source of the stimulation.
Conversely, when arousal is below the optimal level, an
organism has the tendency to approach available sources of
stimulation.
F. Maslow’s Theory of a Hierarchy of Needs: once one’s
needs are met at any given level of the hierarchy, one’s
attention is drawn to the needs of the level above it.
Transcendence: to step beyond
Self-Actualization, to achieve
Self-Actualization:
higher states of consciousness,
to strive for and
and a cosmic vision of
to achieve one’s
one’s part in the universe.
Aesthetic: creativity,
fullest potential.
beauty, and a sense of order
Cognitive: thought stimulation
and to contemplate one’s existence
Esteem: to like oneself, to see
oneself as competent, and to be liked by others
Attachment: to belong,
to affiliate with others, love, and to be loved
Safety: protection from danger,
for security, comfort, and freedom from fear
Biological: basics such as hunger and thirst;
require satisfaction before other needs can begin operation
Abraham Maslow’s Characteristics of a
Self-Actualized Person:
1. An ability to perceive reality accurately.
2. Independence, spontaneity, and creativity.
3. Treating others with unconditional positive regard.
4. An outlook that emphasizes problem-solving.
5. Enjoyment of life.
6. A good sense of humor.
II. Motivational Factors
A. Biological: level of physical energy.
B. Cognitive: level of interest.
C. Emotional: level of fear, anger, sadness, happiness, etc.
D. Social: 1) level of self-esteem and self-efficacy. 2) able to
tolerate failure and not become overconfident by success.
E. Personality: internal versus external locus of control.
An individual’s belief that the outcomes in one’s life are primarily
determined by one’s own actions and choices (internal locus of control)
or by environmental factors, such as other people, physical aspects of the
world, and/or spiritual forces (external locus of control).
III. Hunger Motivation
A. Why do we eat when we are not hungry and why do we
prefer the taste of foods rich in fat?
1) Evolutionary Argument…
1. We humans (and our ancestors) have spent most of our existence
living in a world where food was scarce. So, if we came across an
abundance of food, we would eat as much as possible because it was
unknown when we would get our next meal.
2. Foods rich in fat (such as meat) contain more calories than foods
less rich in fat (such as many vegetables). Thus we prefer fatty foods
because they provide more sustaining energy than foods low in fat.
B. Why are these inherited taste preferences a problem
for many people today and how can we combat them?
C. Cultural Influences on Food Preferences
D. Eating Too Much or Too Little
1) Obesity: the excessive accumulation of body fat.
Obesity is a serious health risk because it increases an
individual’s risk of:
Diabetes, Coronary diseases
Some types of cancer, Sleep apnea
Influences on Obesity
Genetics
Lifestyle factors
Solutions for Obesity
Change in amount of and types of food consumed
Exercise
Medications, Surgical Procedures
2) Anorexia Nervosa: eating disorder characterized by
self-starvation.
Self-starvation.
Distorted body image.
Constantly dieting and believing one is fat.
May cause irregularity or cessation of menstruation.
Often good students and ‘perfectionists’.
Predominantly a female disorder.
3) Bulimia Nervosa: eating disorder in which a person
regularly eats huge quantities of food and then purges
the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or
excessive exercise.
4) Treatment and Outcomes of Anorexia and Bulimia
Immediate goal is to get patient to eat and gain weight.
Patients may be hospitalized if severely malnourished.
Behavior Therapy – reward eating.
Cognitive Therapy – change body image.
IV. Sexual Motivation
A. Who’s doing it with who and what are they doing?
1) Sexual identity: Achieved by seeing oneself as a
sexual being, recognizing one's sexual orientation,
coming to terms with sexual desires, and forming
romantic or sexual attachments.
2) Sexual orientation: Focus of consistent sexual,
romantic, and affectionate interest, either heterosexual,
homosexual, or bisexual.
3) Biological arguments for homosexuality…
Hypothalamus Evidence
Right Hemisphere Evidence
Twin Studies
Differences between
men and women
regarding preferences
for various
sexual acts.
V. Achievement Motivation
A. What’s motivating you to achieve?
1) Extrinsic Motivation: Refers to things that are external
to oneself, such as money or rewards.
2) Intrinsic Motivation: Refers to things that are internal,
such as pride of accomplishment.
Impact on Achievement at School, Work, or with
Creative/Leisure Activities
B. Success also depends on setting the right goals and
effective time management.
C. Regarding time management, sustained success is
usually the result of planning ahead and working on tasks
at a moderate and steady speed.
D. Flow: the mental state of operation in which the person is
fully immersed in what he or she is doing by a feeling of
energized focus, full involvement, and success in the process
of the activity. The challenge and skill levels should be high.
The experience of Flow includes…
1) A loss of the feeling of self-consciousness, attention is directed
outwards towards their activity.
2) Distorted sense of time, one's subjective experience of time is
altered as people become absorbed in their activity.
3) A sense of personal control over the situation or activity.
4) The activity is intrinsically rewarding, so there is an
effortlessness stream of action.
E. Delay of Gratification: the ability to wait in order to obtain
something that one wants. This skill is often referenced with
impulse control, will power, and self control.