Transcript Sociology Ch. 2 S. 2: Cultural Variation

Sociology Ch. 2 S. 2:
Cultural Variation
Obj: describe cultural universals
and explain why they exist; explain
what the terms ethnocentrism and
cultural relativism mean; identify
factors that account for variations
among and within cultures.
Suppose you take a trip to Tokyo. Japanese
friends invite you to dinner. They tell you
that they will be dining in traditional
Japanese style. Would you know what to
expect?
Cultures can differ widely. To get an idea of
how diverse world cultures are, you might
consider languages. If you count only the
languages that have more than 2 million
speakers, there are more than 220
different languages in the world today.
If you include all the local languages, the
number is enormous. In addition, because
there may be dialects of the same basic
language, even people who speak the
same language may have difficulty
understanding one another. In the English
language, for example, British English,
American English, Canadian English, and
Australian English are just a few of the
possible variations.
What Do We Have in Common?
You may be wondering
how cultures can be
so different when all
humans have the
same basic needs.
The answer is that
humans have the
ability to meet their
needs in a vast
number of ways.
Only biological makeup and the physical
environment limit this ability. Nevertheless,
some needs are so basic that all societies
must develop certain features to ensure
their fulfillment. These features, common
to all cultures, are called cultural
universals.
In the 1940s anthropologist George Murdock
examined hundreds of different cultures in
an attempt to determine what general
traits are common to all cultures. Murdock
used his research to compile a list of more
than 65 cultural universals. Among these
universals are body adornment, cooking,
dancing, family, feasting, forms of
greeting, funeral ceremonies, gift giving,
housing, language, medicine, music,
myths and folklore, religion, sports, and
tool making.
Murdock also found that although survival
may dictate the need for cultural
universals, the specific nature of these
traits can vary widely. One factor that
gives rise to families is the need to care for
young children. He argued that in all
cultures, the purpose of the family is the
same. The family ensures that new
members will be added to society and
cared for until old enough to fend for
themselves. In addition, the family
introduces children to the components of
their culture.
The makeup of a family, however, varies
from culture to culture. In most of the
Western world, a family consists of one or
both parents and their children. In the case
of three-generation families, grandparents
may be introduced in the definition.
In some parts of the world a family may
include a man, his several wives, and their
children. While the structure of family may
be different, Murdock argued that the
existence and purpose of families
compose a cultural universal.
Variation Among Societies
In the 1930s anthropologist
Margaret Mead
conducted a now-classic
study of cultural
variation. Her purpose in
the study was to
determine whether
differences in basic
temperament – the
fundamental emotional
disposition of a person –
result mainly from
inherited characteristics
or from cultural
influences.
To find out, she made first-hand observations
of the shared, learned behaviors of several
small societies in New Guinea. The desire
for an in-depth understanding of cultural
variation led Mead to live among the people
of New Guinea and to participate in their
activities.
Two of the societies that Mead examined
were the Arapesh and the Mundugumor.
Both groups lived in the northern part of
what today is Papua New Guinea. Listen,
and make comparisons between the two
cultures.
Comparing the Two Societies:
What factors might account for the vast
cultural differences between these two
societies? At the time of Mead’s study, the
Arapesh lived in the mountains while the
Mundugumor lived in a river valley. The A’s
planted gardens while the M’s were
primarily food gatherers. For the A’s, food
was usually scarce. The M’s, on the other
hand, had an abundance of food, and life
was relatively easy.
Based on her research, Mead concluded that
temperament is mainly the result of culture
rather than biology. She noted that
differences in temperament were much
greater between the two societies than
between males and females in the same
society. Among the Arapesh, men and
women alike were gentle and cooperative.
Similarly, among the Mundugumor,
everyone was hostile and competitive. In
recent years, Mead’s research methods
and observations have been criticized.
Nonetheless, her study vividly illustrates
the wide variance among cultures.
Studying Variation
The study of variations
in cultures presents
challenges for social
scientists. Cultural
variations are what
make different
societies interesting
to study. However,
social scientists must
be careful to remain
critical of biases in
their observations and
conclusions.
Ethnocentrism
It is not unusual for people to have a
negative response to cultural traits that
differ drastically from their own. This
tendency to view one’s own culture and
group as superior is called
ethnocentrism. People in all societies
are, at times, ethnocentric. The belief that
the characteristics of one’s group or
society are right and good helps to build
group unity.
At times, belief of the superiority of a society
results from technological advances that
make one group see others as inferior.
However, when ethnocentrism becomes
extreme in this way, culture can stagnate.
By limiting the pool of acceptable
members, groups and societies run the
risk of excluding new influences that might
prove beneficial.
Even anthropologists and sociologists
struggle with ethnocentrism. Napoleon
Chagnon’s first impression of the
Yanomamo was filtered through the
standards of his own culture. Everything
about the Yanomamo culture contradicted
Chagnon’s expectations of how people
should look and act. Chagnon admits that
when he began to study the Yanomamo of
Venezuela and Brazil, their appearance
and behavior initially horrified him.
Cultural Relativism
Social scientists attempt to keep an open
mind toward cultural variations. To do so
many adopt an attitude of cultural
relativism, which is the belief that cultures
should be judged by their own standards
rather than by applying the standards of
another culture. In other words,
researchers who practice cultural
relativism attempt to understand cultural
practices from the points of view of the
members of the society being studied.
Variation Within Societies
Cultural variations exist
not only among
societies but also
within societies.
Among the major
sources of variation
within a society are
the unique cultural
practices of various
subgroups.
As an American, you share a common
culture with all other Americans. American
culture is a collection of traits, complexes,
and patterns that, by and large, are distinct
from those of their societies. In addition to
these broad cultural features some groups
in society share values, norms, and
behaviors that are not shared by the entire
population. This unique cultural
characteristics of these groups form a
subculture.
Criminologist Edwin Sutherland developed
the idea of subcultures in the 1920s,
through his work on crime and juvenile
delinquency. In addition to deviant
subcultures, sociologists today recognize
age, gender, ethnic, religious, political,
geographic, social-class, and occupational
subcultures.
Most subcultures do not reject all of the
values and practices of the larger society.
For example, residents of San Francisco’s
Chinatown have many broad American
cultural traits, such as going to public
schools, playing with toys, and working at
similar jobs. The culture of the Chinatown
residents also includes the Chinese
language and specific foods and
celebrations that are not shared by most
Americans. Chinese New Year is one such
cultural celebration.
The residents of Little Havana in Miami and
the Navajo of the Southwest also have
their own language and other cultural traits
that are not shared by the larger American
society. Subcultures have also developed
around age groups. Youth subcultures
have existed in the US throughout the
1900s. Characteristics of these youth
cultures have included owning fast cars,
listening to rock or hip hop music, and
wearing certain clothes.
Most subcultures do not present a threat to
society. Modern society is dependent on
various subcultures – such as the military,
the police, lawyers, physicians, teachers,
and religious leaders – to provide many
important functions. Furthermore,
subcultures, particularly those based on
race and ethnicity, add diversity and may
make society more open to change.
In some instances, however, sub cultural
practices are consciously intended to
challenge the values of the larger society.
Sometimes a group rejects the major
values, norms, new set of cultural patterns.
Sociologists call the resulting subculture a
counterculture. The cyberpunk
movement, anarchists, organized crime
families, and the hippie movement of the
1960s are examples of countercultures in
the US. For example, some organized
crime families reject social norms such as
obeying laws.
As is true in the case of cultural variation
among societies, cultural variation within a
society may give rise to ethnocentric
feelings. Sociologists try to maintain the
same attitude of cultural relativism when
studying subcultures and countercultures.