Transcript Sociology Terms * Chapter 2

Chapter 2
Sociological Research Methods
Chapter 2, Lesson 1
Research Methods
data
Data refers to facts and statistics collected together for reference or
analysis.
For sociologists, as well as other scientists, the correct and
objective collection of data is key to the success and validity of
research findings.
survey
A survey is a research method in which people respond to
questions. This survey can be oral or written.
population
A survey’s population refers to a group of people with certain
specified characteristics.
Depending on the survey, its population could be anything from
Canadian teenagers between the ages of 16-18, American seniors
over the age of 65 or adults between the ages of 25-40 suffering
from leukemia. The survey and its corresponding research topic
will dictate the nature of the population.
sample and representative sample
A survey’s sample refers to a group of people that represents a larger
population. It is a sub-group of the survey’s population and chosen
carefully to represent the group as a whole.
A survey’s representative sample refers to a sample that accurately
reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole. Typically, a
representative sample is designed to have equal measures based on
gender, age or race, depending upon the survey.
questionnaire
There are two main ways in which survey information is gathered.
One of these is a questionnaire – a written set of questions to be
answered by a research participant.
Recently, restaurants have begun to include a link on their receipt
that will take the patron to a survey or questionnaire that asks how
their experience was, how nice and responsive were the waiters and
in general, how likely will the person return.
interview
There are two main ways in which survey information is gathered.
One of these is an interview – a survey method in which a trained
researcher asks questions and records the answers.
One can find interviews on the street as pollsters or other data
gatherers might stop a person and ask them questions. It does not
have to be a set environment but can be an ad-hoc experience.
close-ended questions
A close-ended question is one where the respondent has a limited
array of answers they can provide.
An example of a close-ended question might include:
Do you believe in abortion? Yes or no?
How did you find the lesson? Very interesting, interesting, boring or
very boring?
open-ended questions
An open-ended question is one where the respondent can answer
using their own words.
An example of an open-ended question might include:
How do you feel President Obama has done in his working
relationship with Congressional Republicans?
What is your opinion of the meal you had this evening?
secondary analysis
Secondary analysis refers to the use of pre-collected information
or data.
Examples of secondary analysis includes government reports
(census), company records (salary information), voting logs (who
is and is not voting) and prison records (average sentence per
crime).
field research
Field research is that research that takes place in a natural
(meaning non-laboratory) setting.
An example of field research would be a scientist moving to the
Amazon Rain Forest in Brazil to observe the social behaviors of
native tribes who have had limited contact with outsiders.
case study
A case study is an intensive study of a single group, incident or
community.
If one does a study over drug use in the city of Chicago, it is
probable (though not always) that the usage will be similar in
Baltimore or Dallas.
participant observation
A participant observation is a case study where the researcher
becomes a member of the group being studied.
An example would be the work of John Howard Griffin, who in
1961, wrote a book entitled Black Like Me. In his study, Griffin, a
white man, altered his appearance to be black and traveled
through the South in an attempt to understand the nature of the
lives of blacks in the region. However, not all participant
observers are secret in their identity.
mean, medium and mode
There are three major ways in which a set of data can be analyzed
for its central tendency – mean (the arithmetic average of the scores
in a distribution), median (score that falls exactly in the center of
the distribution of scores) and mode (the score that appears the
most).
Chapter 2, Lesson 2
Causation in Science
causation
Causation is the belief that events occur in predictable ways and
that one event leads to another.
A person’s favorite baseball team is in the World Series and the
team is trailing. The fan feels that by watching the game, they are
somehow creating a disadvantage so they turn off the television.
This would be an example of causation. Causation or the belief
therein does not have to make sense to have an impact on
behavior.
multiple causation
Multiple causation is the belief that an event occurs as a result of
several factors working in combination.
The old science of phrenology was used to identify people of
“inferior” stock. In Germany during World War II, the Nazis
would often measure the width of the nose and the distance
between the eyes to determine an “undesirable” among other
things.
variable
A variable refers to any characteristic that is subject to change.
Variables can be either quantitative or qualitative, independent or
dependent.
quantitative variable
A quantitative variable is a characteristic that can be measured
numerically.
Many national statistics, such as literacy rate and fertility rate can
be expressed as a quantitative variable.
qualitative variable
A qualitative variable is a characteristic that is defined by its
presence or absence in a category.
These are variables with only two answers (male/female;
single/married, yes/no, etc.).
independent variable
An independent variable is a characteristic that causes something
else to happen.
A baseball pitcher who throws a pitch that does not move the
way it should creates the homerun by the batter. In this scenario,
the pitch is the independent variable.
dependent variable
A dependent variable is a characteristic that reflects a change.
In the scenario of a bad pitch leading to a homerun, the homerun
is the dependent variable. The homerun requires the bad pitch to
happen. The batter is dependent upon the pitcher.
intervening variable
An intervening variable is one that changes the relationship
between an independent and dependent variable.
In the previous scenario of a bad pitch and a well hit ball, if the
outfielder has the athletic ability to leap and catch it as it sails
over the outfield wall, the athletic ability works as an intervening
variable.
correlation
A correlation refers to the measure of the relationship between two
variables. The correlation can have one of three types of
relationships – no relationship (the two variables have nothing to
do with one another), positive (the increase in one leads to an
increase in the other) or negative (the increase in one leads to a
decrease in the other).
In the study of macroeconomics, there is something called Okun’s
Law, which shows the relationship between the unemployment rate
and the potential gross domestic product (GDP). Okun’s Law
states that every 1% increase in unemployment leads to a 2%
reduction in the country’s potential GDP. Okun’s Law established a
negative (or inverse) correlation between the two economic
statistics.
spurious correlation
The term “spurious correlation” refers to a relationship between
two variables that is actually caused by a third factor.
If a researcher studied a high school’s population to determine
the amount of those who attend school and the amount of those
who are delinquent, the researcher might come across a third
factor that causes a student to fall into one category or another.
A third factor could be anything from distance between home
and school or whether a family has a car or not.
Chapter 2, Lesson 3
Procedures and Ethics in Research
scientific method
The scientific method refers to the systematic approach taken to
identify a problem or condition, collecting data by way of
observation and experiment and the development of an hypothesis
to address the problem.
The steps to doing research include:
1. Identify problem
2. Review the literature
3. Formulate hypothesis
4. Develop research structure
5. Collect data
6. Analyze data
7. State findings and conclusions
hypothesis
A hypothesis is a measurable statement speaking to the
relationships among the variables.
An interesting example of an hypothesis could be:
The presence of vegetarianism in the developing world is
a result of the lack of wealth in the region that makes meat too
expensive rather than a philosophical stance.
ethics
Ethics within any field refers to a set of generally agreed upon moral
principles within which all efforts should fit.
In both sociology and psychology, there have been various incidents
where studies have fallen outside the perimeters of professional
ethics by the damage it created, be it physical or mental.
Sometimes, the idea of ethics within a profession changes as morals
change within society.