Transcript researcher - Professor Cat

Principles of Sociology SOC-201
Unit 2 – Science and Methods in Sociology
Scientific Sociology
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How Theory and Research Work Together
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To test their theories, sociologists conduct research
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Without research to back it up, a theory will remain an
abstract concept with little value
Without theory, research is simply a collection of meaningless
facts
Every theory must be tested with research and findings need
to be explained
They rely on scientific method to investigate how and why
people behave the way they do
Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence
Sociological research often reveals that what we accept as
“common sense” is not entirely true
Concepts, Variables, and Measurements
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Concept
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Variable
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A mental construct that represents some aspect of the world
in a simplified form
Examples: family, gender, race, social class
A concept whose values changes from case to case
Examples: price, economic classes (upper class, lower class)
Measurement
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A procedure for determining the value of a variable in a
specific case
Researcher must specify exactly what they are measuring in
each case
Concepts, Variables, and Measurements
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Descriptive Statistics
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Sociologists need to employ statistics to state what the
“average” is for a large population
Mean - Arithmetic average of all measures
Median – The middle score that divides the distribution in half
Mode – The single score that appears most often
With measurements, you also need reliability and validity
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Reliability – The consistency of the measure
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Must yield the same results each time it is measured
Validity – The precision in measuring exactly what one intends
to measure
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Cause and Effect
Correlation and Cause
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How do we determine that the variables are related?
Correlation
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A relationship by which two or more variables change together
But we want to know not just the how but the why
Cause and Effect
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A relationship in which we know that change in one variable
causes change in another
It allows researchers to predict how one pattern of behavior
will affect another
Correlation and Cause
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Types of variables
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Independent – The causal factor
Dependent – The effect
Spurious Correlation
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When two variables change together but neither one caused
the other to change
Usually results from a third factor
Correlation and Cause
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A true cause and effect relationship must show:
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That the two variables are correlated
That the independent variable precedes the dependent in time
There is no evidence that the correlation is spurious
Ideal of Objectivity
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This is allowing the facts to speak for themselves
Try not to filtering them through the personal values and
biases of the researcher
However, total neutrality is impossible
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Research and Gender
Research and Gender
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There are a five problems involving gender:
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Androcentricity
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Overgeneralizing
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Using a small segment to represent the population as a whole
For example, using only males in studies
Gender Blindness
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“Male Centered”
Ignoring what women do
Failing to consider gender at all
Double Standards
Interference
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Where a subject sees the researcher as a woman instead of a
researcher
Research and Gender
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Feminist Research
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Sociology focused mainly on men in the past
This new focus allows research to focus mainly on women
It looks at the social standing of women, guided by the
assumption that women experience subordination
There is no single feminist strategy
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Research Models
Research Model
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Eight steps involved in scientific research:
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Selecting a Topic
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Defining the Problem
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Narrow the topic to focus on a specific area
Reviewing the Literature
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What do you want to learn more about?
To make sure what you want to study has not already been studied
Formulating a Hypothesis –
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Hypothesis is a statement of how variables are expected to be related
to one another, often according to predictions from a theory
Variables are factors that vary or change from one person or situation
to another
Your hypothesis will need operational definitions, which are precise
ways to measure the variables
Research Model
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Choosing a Research Model
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Collecting the Data
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When you gather data, you must take care to assure its validity and its
reliability
Analyzing the Results
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The means by which you collect your data
Sociologists use six basic research methods
This is why you test your hypothesis
Sharing the Results
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Publish a report with your findings to the scientific community
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Research Methods
Research Methods
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There are many different types of research methods that
sociologists use as systematic plans for conducting
research
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Qualitative Analysis
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What you use depends on the questions you want to answer
This measurement deals with descriptions, where the data can
be observed but not measured
Quantitative Analysis
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This measurement deals with numbers, where the data can be
measured
Research Method - Experiment
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Experiment
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It is a research method used to investigate cause and effect
relationships under highly controlled conditions
Specifically used to test a hypothesis
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This is an unverified statement of a relationships between two or mor
variables
Gathering Evidence
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Measure the dependent variable (the “effect”)
Expose the dependent variable to the independent variable
Measure the dependent variable again to see what, if any,
changes took place
Research Method - Experiment
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Applications
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Advantages
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For explanatory research that specifies the relationships among
variables
Generates quantitative data
Provides the greatest ability to specify cause and effect
Replication is very easy
Limitation
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Control is easiest in a laboratory but those have an artificial
quality
Unless the environment is carefully controlled, results may be
biased
Research Methods - Survey
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Survey
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Subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a
questionnaire or an interview
How to do a survey:
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Select a sample of the population
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Sample – A selection of the population intended to represent the
population to be studied
Select the type of questions to be used
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Questions should always be neutral to prevent bias
Closed-Ended Questions
Open-Ended Questions
Research Methods - Survey
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Applications:
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Advantages
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Gathering information that cannot be directly observed (values,
beliefs, attitudes)
It is useful for descriptive and explanatory research
It generates quantitative or qualitative data
Sampling allows surveys of large populations using
questionnaires
Interviews provide in-depth responses
Limitations
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Questionnaires must be carefully prepared to avoid bias and
may produce a low-return rate
Interviews are expensive and time consuming
Research Methods - Fieldwork
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Participant Observation
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Researcher observes the subjects while joining in their regular
activities
Goal is to gain entry into a setting without disturbing the
normal routine behaviors of others
Cultural anthropologists use this method calling it “fieldwork”
Uses
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Exploratory and descriptive study of people in a “natural”
setting
Produces qualitative data
Research Methods - Fieldwork
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Applications:
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Advantages
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For an exploratory and descriptive study of people in a
“natural” setting
Generates qualitative data
Allows study of “natural” behavior
Rather inexpensive
Limitations
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Very time consuming
Difficult to reproduce findings
Researcher must balance the roles between being an observer
and a participant
Research Methods – Existing Sources
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Existing Sources – “Secondary Analysis”
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Application
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For any type of research where suitable data is unavailable
Advantages
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The analysis of data that someone else has already collected
Saves time and effort on collecting original data
Allows historical research
Limitations
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Researcher has no control over possible biases in the data
The data may not be suitable for current research needs
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Ethics in Research
Ethics in Research
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Sociologists must remember that their research can be
used to both help and hurt their subjects and
communities
The American Sociological Association (ASA) has set
down guidelines for conducting ethical research
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Professional Competence
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Sociologists should be technologically competent and fair-minded in
their work
Professional and Scientific Responsibility
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They must present their findings without omitting data
Are ethically bound to share their studies with other sociologists who
want to replicate their research
Ethics in Research
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Professional Integrity
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Sociologists must conduct themselves in ways that inspire trust
Ensure the safety of their subjects
Informed consent
Avoid deception
Avoid conflicts of interest, especially in regards to funding