Transcript Sociology - Fredericksburg City Public Schools

Sociology
Semester Exam Review
What Is Sociology?
“...The systematic study of human society ”
– Systematic
• Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior
– Human society
• Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals
and vice versa
– At the “heart of sociology”
• The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society
The Sociological Perspective
Peter Berger
• Seeing the general in the particular
– Sociologists identify general social patterns in the
behavior of particular individuals.
• Seeing the strange in the familiar
– Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a
matter of what people decide to do
– Understanding that society shapes our lives
Sociological Perspective and
Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills
C. Wright Mills’
Sociological Imagination
• The power of the sociological perspective lies
not just in changing individual lives but in
transforming society.
• Society, not people’s personal failings, is the
cause of social problems.
• The sociological imagination transforms
personal troubles into public issues.
Sociological Theory
• Theory: a statement of how and why facts
are related
– Explains social behavior to the real world
• Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental
assumptions that guides thinking
– Structural-functional
– Social-conflict
– Symbolic-interaction
Structural-Functional Theory
A theoretical framework in
which society is viewed as a
whole unit, composed of
interrelated parts, each with
a function that, when
fulfilled, contributes to
society’s equilibrium
Also known as functionalism
and structural functionalism
Functional Analysis
• Focuses on Social Structure and
Social Function
• Structure- stable pattern of behavior
• Function: consequences of patterns
for operation of society
• Argues that Social Order is based on
Social Consensus
Social Functions
• Manifest Functions- Intended
• Latent Functions- Unintended
• Dysfunctions- Problematic
Critical Evaluations of
Functional Analysis
• Tends to be
conservative
• Tends to dismiss
change-”systems”
• Overlooks the
negative
Structural-Functional Paradigm
• The basics
– A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns
that shape society as a whole
– Views society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity and stability
• Key elements:
– Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of
social behavior found in social institutions.
– Social function refers to the consequences for the operation
of society as a whole.
Conflict Theory
A theoretical framework in
which society is viewed as
being composed of groups
competing for scarce
resources.
Conflict Theory
• Focuses on Social Tension and Social
Change
• Is macro level orientation
• Argues that Social Order is maintained
by direct or indirect exercise of power
• “Marginality”-those on the fringe of
society
• Originated from the work of Karl Marx
Social-Conflict Paradigm
• The basics:
– A macro-oriented paradigm
– Views society as an arena of inequality that generates
conflict and social change
• Key elements:
– Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the
expense of the majority.
– Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to
social inequality.
– Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations
Symbolic-Interaction Theory
A theoretical perspective
that focuses on how
people use symbols to
establish meaning,
develop their views of
the world, and
communicate with one
another.
Interactionism
• Focuses on details of everyday life and
interaction between people, and on how
meaning is assigned to human interaction
• Is micro level orientation
• Argues that society responds through
symbolic interaction
• Originated from the studies of Max Weber
and George Herbert Mead
Who’s Who in the
Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
• Max Weber
– Understanding a setting from the people in it
• George Herbert Mead
– How we build personalities from social
experience
• Erving Goffman
– Dramaturgical analysis
• George Homans & Peter Blau
– Social-exchange analysis
Critical Evaluation
• Structural-Functional
– Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race
& gender, focuses on stability at the expense of
conflict
• Social-Conflict
– Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual
interdependence unify society, pursues political
goals
• Symbolic-Interaction
– Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture,
factors such as class, gender & race
Sociological Investigation
A logical system that derives knowledge
From direct, systematic observation
Three Frameworks
for Sociological Investigation
• Scientific sociology
– The study of society based on systematic
observation of social behavior
– Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with
our senses
• Interpretive sociology
– The study of society that focuses on the meanings
people attach to their social world
• Critical sociology
– The study of society that focuses on the need for
change
Causation
• Cause and effect
– A relationship in which change in one variable causes
change in another (Hard to establish)
• Correlation
– A relationship by which two or more variables change
together (direct/inverse- positive/negative)
• Spurious correlation
– An apparent, though false, relationship between two or
more variables caused by some other variable
• Types of variables
– Independent: The variable that causes the change
– Dependent: The variable that changes (its value
depends upon the independent variable)
Variables
• Dependent Variable- The variable that
changes due to the
• Independent Variable- the variable that
causes the change
• Dependent: Grade on the Exam
• Independent(s): The amount of time
studying, reading level, energy level,
grades on previous tests, etc.
Spurious Correlations
Shoe Size & Math Skill
Scientific Sociology
Terminology
• Concepts–A mental construct that represents
some part of the world in a simplified form
• Variables–Concepts whose values change from
case to case
• Measurement–A procedure for determining the
value of a variable in a specific case
• Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly
what is to be measured before assigning a value
to a variable
Scientific Sociology Terminology
• Reliability–Consistency in measurement
– Does an instrument provide for a consistent
measure of the subject matter?
• Validity–Precision in measuring exactly
what one intends to measure
– Does an instrument actually measure what it sets
out to measure?
If measurement is not Reliable,
then it can’t be Valid- but needs
to be both to be of any value
Scientific Sociology Terminology
• Objectivity
– A state of personal neutrality in conducting research
• Value-free research
– Weber said sociologists should strive to be
dispassionate and detached.
• Replication
– Repetition of research by other investigators
– Helps limit distortion caused by personal values
Limitations
of Scientific Sociology
• Human behavior is too complex to predict
precisely any individual’s actions.
• The mere presence of the researcher might
affect the behavior being studied.
• Social patterns change.
• Sociologists are part of the world they study,
making value-free research difficult.
Miligram's Experiment
• The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) •
VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control
• Administered electric shocks to “Subjects”
Sociological Research Methods
A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research
• Experiment–A research method for investigating
cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
• Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship
between variables (an educated guess)
• Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but
has no effect on the experiment
• “Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's
behavior caused by the awareness of being studied
Control
• To be certain that the change in the dependent
variable was due to the exposure to the
independent variable, the researcher must keep
constant other factors that might intrude.
• One method is to break group into experimental
and control groups.
– Experimental group is exposed to independent
variable.
– Control group is exposed to a placebo.
Survey Research
A research method in which subjects respond to a series
of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview
• Population
– The people who are the focus of the research
• Sample
– The part of the population that represents the
whole
• Random Sample
– Drawing a sample from a population so that every
element of the population has an equal chance of
being selected
Culture
The values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects
that together form a people’s
way of life
Terminology
• Nonmaterial culture
– The intangible world of ideas created by
members of a society
• Material culture
– The tangible things created by members
of a society
Terminology
• Culture shock
– Disorientation due to the inability to
make sense out of one’s surroundings
• Domestic and foreign travel
• Ethnocentrism
– A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate
based on your own Culture’s standards
• Cultural relativism
– More accurate understanding-cultural
perspective-context of the culture
Symbols
• Anything that carries a particular
meaning recognized by people who
share a culture
• Societies create new symbols all the
time.
• Reality for humans is found in the
meaning things carry with them.
– The basis of culture; makes social
life possible
Symbols
• People must be mindful that
meanings vary from culture to
culture.
• Meanings can even vary greatly
within the same groups of people.
– Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc.
Values and Beliefs
• Values
– Culturally defined standards of
desirability, goodness, and beauty,
which serve as broad guidelines for
social living. Values support beliefs.
• Beliefs
– Specific statements that people hold to
be true.
– Particular matters that individuals
consider to be true or false.
Norms
Rules and expectations by which society
guides its members’ behavior
• Types
– Proscriptive
• Should-nots, prohibited
– Prescriptive
• Shoulds, prescribed like medicine
• Mores and Folkways
– Mores (pronounced "more-rays")
• Widely observed and have great moral
significance
– Folkways
• Norms for routine and casual interaction
Social Control
Various means by which members of society
encourage conformity to norms
• Guilt
– A negative judgment we make about
ourselves
• Shame
– The painful sense that others
disapprove of our actions
Cultural Diversity
• Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart
some segment of society’s population.
• Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly
oppose those widely accepted within a society.
Terms
• Culture integration
–
The close relationships among various elements of a
cultural system
• Example: Computers and changes in our language
• Culture lag
–
The fact that some cultural elements change more
quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system
• Example: Medical procedures and ethics
• Cultural universals– Traits that are part of
every known culture; includes family, funeral rites,
and jokes
Socialization
The lifelong social experience by which
people develop their human potential and
learn culture
Social Experience
Socialization
• The lifelong social experience by which
individuals develop their human potential and
learn patterns of their culture
Personality
• A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking,
feeling, and acting
– Could a person’s personality develop without social
interaction?
Nature and Nurture
•
Biological sciences–The role of nature
– Elements of society have a naturalistic root.
•
Social sciences–The role of nurture
– Most of who and what we are as a species is
learned, or social in nature.
– Behaviorism
•
Nature or nurture?
– It is both, but from a sociological perspective,
nurture matters more.
Social Isolation
Effect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments
• Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb
development.
Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle
• Years of isolation left both children damaged and only
capable of approximating a normal life after intensive
rehabilitation.
Genie
• Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent
disabilities
Theories
• Freud- Id, Ego, Superego-Psycho-sexual
stages
• Piaget- Cognitive development
• Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning
• Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self”
Erik Erickson
This theory views personality as a lifelong
process (8 Stages) and success at one
stage prepares us for the next challenge.
• Psycho-Social stages
• Critics: Not everyone confronts the
challenges in the same order.
• Not clear if failure to meet one challenge
predicts failure in other stages
• Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition
of successful life?
Agents of Socialization
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•
•
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The Family
The School
The Peer Group
The Mass Media
Church
Government
The Family
• Most important agent
– A loving family produces a happy welladjusted child.
• Parental attention is very important
– Bonding and encouragement
• Household environment
– Stimulates development
• Social position
– Race, religion, ethnicity, class
Socialization and Life Course
• Each stage of life is linked to the biological
process.
• Societies organize the life course by age.
• Other factors shape lives: race, class,
ethnicity, and gender.
• Stages present problems and transitions
that involve learning.
Social Interaction
In Everyday Life
The process by which people act and
react in relation to others
Social Interaction
• The symbolic interaction paradigm
– What are the other two major theories?
– Do either have implications here?
• Humans rely on social structure to make
sense out of everyday situations.
Status
• A social position that a person
holds
• Status set
– All the statuses held at one time
•
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•
•
•
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Dance partner
Boss
Friend
Harley club member
Sports participant
Business manager
Type of Status
• Ascribed: Involuntary positions
• Achieved: Voluntary positions
Often the two types work together. What we’re
ascribed often helps us achieve other
statuses.
• Master status: Has special
importance for social identity, often
shaping a person’s entire life.
Role
The behavior expected of someone who holds a
particular status
• Role set
– A number of roles attached to a single status
– Example: status of mother
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•
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Disciplinarian
Sports authority
Dietitian
Dr. Mom
Pretty mom
Role Conflict and Role Strain
• Role conflict
– Involves two or more statuses
• Example: Conflict between role expectations of a
police officer who catches her own son using drugs
at home–mother and police officer
• Role strain
– Involves a single status
• Example: Manager who tries to balance concern
for workers with task requirements–office manager
Figure 6.1
Status Set and Role Sets
A status set includes all the statuses a person holds at a given time. The status set defines “who we are” in society. The
many roles linked to each status define “what we do.”
Role Exit
• Role exit: Becoming an “ex”
– Disengaging from social roles can be very traumatic
without proper preparation.
• The process of becoming an “ex”
– Doubts form about ability to continue with a certain
role.
– Examination of new roles leads to a turning point at
which time one decides to pursue a new direction.
– Learning new expectations associated with new role.
– Past role might influence new self.
The Social Construction
of Reality
• The process by which people creatively shape
reality through social interaction.
• “Street smarts”
• The Thomas theorem
– Situations that are defined as real are real in their
consequences
• Ethnomethodology
– The study of the way people make sense of their
everyday surroundings
– Explores the process of making sense of social
encounters
Goffman’s Dramaturgical
Analysis
Examining social interaction in terms of theatrical
performances
• Presentation of self or impression management
– Efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of
others.
• Role performance includes
– Stage setting
– Use of props: costume, tone of voice, gesture
– Example: Going to the doctor and playing the
expected patient role.