Transcript Gender Stratification

Gender Stratification
Gender and Inequality
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Gender–Personal traits and social positions
that members of a society attach to being
female and male
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Gender stratification–Unequal distribution of
wealth, power, and privilege between men
and women
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Male-female biological differences
Gender in a Global Perspective
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Israeli kibbutzim
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Margaret Mead’s research
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Culture is key to gender differences.
George Murdock’s research
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Gender equality is a stated goal.
Some global agreement about feminine and
masculine tasks.
Gender and culture
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What it means to be male or female is mostly a
creation of society.
Figure 13.1
Men’s and Women’s Athletic Performance
Patriarchy and Sexism
A form of social organization in which males dominate
females
• Matriarchy–A form of social organization in
which females dominate males
• Sexism–Belief that one sex or the other is
innately inferior or superior
• Institutional sexism
–Found throughout the economy
• The costs of sexism
–Sexism limits half of the human population.
• Inevitability of patriarchy
–Most sociologists believe gender is socially
constructed and can be changed.
Global Map 13.1
Women’s Power in Global Perspective
Gender and Socialization
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Gender roles (sex roles)–Attitudes and
activities that a society links to each sex
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Gender affects how we think of ourselves and
teaches us how to behave.
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Research suggests that most young people
develop personalities that are a mix of
feminine and masculine traits.
Gender and the Family
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Is it a boy or girl?
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Color-coding gender
Traditional notions of gender identity
Handling of children
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Female: passivity and emotion
Male: independence and action
Gender and Peer Groups
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Janet Lever (1978)
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Gilligan (1982)
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Boys favor team sports with complex rules and clear
objectives.
Girls’ sports teach interpersonal skills and the value of
sharing and cooperation.
Boys reason according to abstract principles. Girls
consider morality a matter of responsibility to others.
Schooling
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Gender shapes interests and beliefs, guides areas of
study, and career choices.
Gender and the Mass Media
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White males have center stage.
Minorities locked out until the early 1970s.
Women receive roles based on sex appeal.
The “beauty myth”
Social Stratification
• 59% of all women work.
• Women hold primary responsibility for
household duties.
• Our culture gives more responsibility for
parenting to women.
• On average, women earn 77 cents for every
dollar earned by men.
• Some work defined as “men’s work”
Table 13.1
Jobs with the Highest Concentrations of Women, 2006
Figure 13.2
Housework: Who Does How Much?
Education, Politics,
and Military
• Gender and education
• 60% of all associate and bachelor degrees are
earned by women. Since 1992, women earned most
postgraduate degrees.
• Politics
• Nineteenth Amendment (1920)
• Women active in local, state politics
• Military
• 15% of US military personnel are women and 15% of
all deployed forces.
• Culture influences our views of women in the military.
National Map 13.1
Women in State Government across the United States
Are Women a Minority?
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At every class level, women have less
income, wealth, education, and power than
men.
Intersection theory–The interplay of race,
class, and gender, often resulting in multiple
dimensions of disadvantage.
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Disadvantages linked to gender and race often
combine to produce especially low social standing.
Multilayered system of disadvantage for
some and privilege for others
Violence Against Women
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In the 19th century, men claimed the right to
physically discipline their wives.
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Sexual assaults, rapes, attempted rapes, and
physical assaults
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Campus and university gender violence
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Much gender-linked violence occurs in the home.
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Female genital mutilation
Global Map 13.2
Female Genital Mutilation in Global Perspective
Violence Against Men
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Our society might encourage more violence
against men than women.
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Our culture tends to define masculinity in
terms of aggression and violence.
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Men’s lives involve more stress and isolation
than women’s lives.
Sexual Harassment
Comments, gestures, or physical contact of a sexual
nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome.
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Rules for workplace interaction
Causes of sexual harassment
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Culture encourages men to be sexually assertive and
perceive women in sexual terms.
Men occupy most positions of power.
By the “effect standard,” a hostile environment involves
different perceptions of the same behavior.
Pornography
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People take different views of what is and isn’t
pornographic.
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Concerns about pornography as a moral issue
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The gender-stratification point of view considers
pornography a power issue.
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Concern that pornography promotes violence
against women by portraying them as weak and
undeserving of respect
Applying Theory
Gender
Theoretical Analysis of Gender
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Structural-functional analysis
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Parsons: Gender forms a complementary set of roles
that links men and women into family units and gives
each sex responsibility for important tasks.
Modern societies relax traditional gender roles as they
become more meritocratic because rigid roles waste
human talent.
Social-conflict analysis
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Gender involves differences in behavior and power.
Engels: Capitalism strengthens male domination.
Figure 13.3
Use of Contraception by Married
Women of Childbearing Age
Feminism
The advocacy of social equality for women and men,
in opposition to patriarchy and sexism
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Working to increase equality
Expansion of human choice
Eliminate gender stratification
Ending sexual violence
Promotes sexual freedom
Types of Feminism
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Liberal feminism
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Socialist feminism
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Pursues collective personal liberation
Radical feminism
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Free to develop own talents and interests
Eliminate idea of gender
Egalitarian, gender-free revolution
Opposition to feminism
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Threat to male status and self-respect
Growing evidence that men and women think and act in
different ways
Applying Theory
Feminism
Figure 13.4
Opposition to Feminism among First-Year College Students, 1970-2005
The share of college students expressing antifeminist views declined after 1970. Men are still more likely than women to hold such attitudes.
Source: Astin et al. (2002) and Pryor et al. (2005)
Race and Ethnicity
Definitions
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Race–A socially constructed category
composed of people who share biologically
transmitted traits that members of a society
consider important
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Sociologists consider racial terms misleading
at best and harmful at worst.
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No society contains biologically “pure” people.
Definitions
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Ethnicity–a shared cultural heritage
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The United States is a multiethnic society
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Like race, ethnicity is socially constructed
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Remember: Race is constructed from
biological traits and ethnicity is constructed
from cultural traits.
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For most people, ethnicity is more complex
than race.
Table 14.1a
Racial and Ethnic Categories in the United States, 2000
(Continued on next two slides)
Table 14.1b (cont.)
Table 14.1c (cont.)
Minority
Any category of people distinguished by physical or
cultural difference that a society sets apart and
subordinates
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General characteristics
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Distinct identity: Race, sex, sexual orientation, the poor
Subordination: Often saddled with lower status
Stereotypes, stigma, and labeling
Group size not always a factor
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Women in US outnumber men.
Blacks in South Africa outnumber whites.
National Map 14.1
Where the Minority Majority Already Exists
Prejudice
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Prejudice–A rigid and unfair generalization
about an entire category of people.
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Stereotype–An exaggerated description
applied to every person in some category
Measuring Prejudice
The Social Distance Scale
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Student opinion shows a trend toward greater social
acceptance.
People see fewer differences among various
minorities.
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, might
have reduced social acceptance of Arabs and
Muslims.
Figure 14.1
Bogardus Social Distance Research (Detail on next slide)
Figure 14.1 Detail
Racism
The belief that one racial category is innately superior or
inferior to another
• Racism has been widespread throughout
US history where ideas about racial
inferiority supported slavery.
• Overt racism in the US has decreased,
but remains a serious social problem.
Theories of Prejudice
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Scapegoat theory
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Authoritarian personality theory
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Disadvantaged people who unfairly blame
minorities for their own problems
Rigid moralists who see things in “black & white”
Culture theory
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Everyone has some prejudice because it’s
embedded in culture.
Theories of Prejudice
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Conflict theory
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Self-justification for the rich and powerful in the
United States
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Minorities might cultivate climate of race
consciousness in order to win greater power and
privileges.
Seeing Sociology in Everyday Life
The Distribution of Intelligence.
Discrimination Experiment
A Class Divided
Discrimination
Unequal treatment of various categories of people
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Institutional prejudice and discrimination–Bias
built into the operation of society’s institutions
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Carmichael and Hamilton: People are slow to
condemn or even recognize institutional
prejudice and discrimination because it often
involves respected public officials and longestablished practices.
The Vicious Circle
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Prejudice and discrimination begin as
ethnocentric attitudes.
As a result, groups can be placed in a
situation where they’re socially disadvantaged
and labeled.
A group’s situation, over time, is thus
explained as a result of innate inferiority rather
than looking at the social structure. The cycle
then repeats itself.
Figure 14.2
Prejudice and Discrimination: The Vicious Circle
Prejudice and discrimination can form a vicious circle, perpetuating themselves.
Patterns of Interaction
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Pluralism–A state in which people of all races
and ethnicities are distinct but have equal
social standing
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Assimilation–The process by which minorities
gradually adopt patterns of the dominant
culture
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Miscegenation–Biological reproduction by
partners of different racial categories
Patterns of Interaction
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Segregation–The physical and social
separation of categories of people
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Genocide–The systematic killing of one
category of people by another
National Map 14.2
Land Controlled by Native Americans, 1790 to Today
In 1790, Native Americans controlled three-fourths of the land (blue-shaded areas) that eventually became the United States. Today, Native
Americans control 314 reservations, scattered across the United States, that account for just 2 percent of the country’s land area. How would
you characterize these locations?
Source: Copyright (c) 1998 by The New York Times Co. Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.
National Map 14.3
The Concentration of Hispanics or Latinos, African Americans, Asian
Americans, and Arab Americans, by County, 2000
Race and Ethnicity:
Looking Ahead
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The US will remain a land of immigrants.
Most immigrants arrived in a wave that
peaked about 1910.
Another wave of immigration began after
World War II and swelled as the
government relaxed immigration laws in
the 1960s.
Aging and the Elderly
If today’s longevity were the same as it was in
1900, half of the US population would not be
here at all; half would have already died, and
half would never have been born.”
Graying of United States
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Seniors are now 12.4% of the population.
By 2030, Baby Boomers will number 71 million.
The elderly population of wealthy nations is
increasing most rapidly.
By 2030...
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About half the population will be over 40.
Figure 15.1
The Graying of U.S. Society
The proportion of the U.S. population over the age of 65 tripled during the last century. The median age of the U.S. population has now passed
35 years and will continue to rise.
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (2005)
Aging Population Increase
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Birth rate: going down
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Life expectancy: going up
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Decreased infant mortality
Children are a major expense.
Advances in birth control
Improved housing, nutrition and increased wealth
Medical advances
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Almost eliminated childhood infectious diseases
Treat cancer and heart disease
Sociological Impact
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Cultural change
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Elderly more visible
“Young-old” and “old-old”
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Younger elderly 65-75: Independent with good
health and financial security
Older elderly past age 75: Dependent on others
Over age 85 fastest growing segment: Women
outnumber men
Biological Changes
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Gerontology
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Physical changes
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Study of aging and the elderly
Attitude toward aging depends on societal values
Predictable graying of hair, wrinkles, loss of height and weight,
decline in strength, vitality, and senses
Odds of chronic illnesses and life-threatening conditions rise
Health
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Most over 65 report good health
“Well-to-do” people have it better since they can afford
preventive care
National Map 15.1
The Elderly Population across the United States
“The older I grow, the more distrust the
familiar doctrine that age brings
wisdom”
H.L. Mencken
Frontline Special
Living Old
Psychological Changes
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Advancing age does not mean certain
impairment of mental abilities.
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Some research reports improved math and verbal
skills.
Personality changes
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The elderly can become more introspective.
Major shifts in personalities don’t normally take place.
Aging and Culture
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The significance of growing old varies according
to culture.
Age stratification
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Unequal distribution of wealth, power and privilege
among people at different stages of the life course
Hunting and gathering societies
Pastoral, horticultural, and agrarian societies
Industrial and postindustrial societies
Global Map 15.1
Life Expectancy in Global Perspective
Transitions and Challenges
of Aging
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Finding meaning
Social isolation
Retirement
Aging and poverty
Caregiving
Ageism
The elderly: a minority?
Finding Meaning
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Erikson: Resolve a tension of integrity vs. despair
Successful aging lies in maintaining dignity and
self-confidence and accepting advancing age.
Neugarten studied the personality types of
people in their 70s.
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Disintegrated and disorganized
Passive-dependent
Defended
Integrated
Table 15.1
Living Arrangements for the Elderly
Social Isolation
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Isolation is common among the elderly.
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Retirement, limited mobility, and negative stereotypes close off
sources of social interaction.
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Death of significant others
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Many widows and widowers cite loneliness as serious problem.
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Older people value independence.
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Family members are a major source of social support.
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Daughters more than sons
Retirement
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Work is an important part of personal identity.
To minimize loss of prestige:
 New activities and interests
Volunteer work can fill time.
 Part-time work can bring additional money.
Retirement is a recent idea in industrialized societies
occurring within the last century.
When or whether we retire
 “Staged retirement”–People continue working well past
age 65, reducing their hours as they build financial
security.
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Poverty
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Home mortgage is usually paid off, some costs
rise for the elderly
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Medical care, household help, and utilities
Social security is the major source of income.
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In 2005, 10.1% of elderly Americans fell below the
poverty line at age 65.
Median individual income for women is $12,495 and for
men $21,784.
Figure 15.2
U.S. Poverty
Rates by Age,
2005
Caregiving
Informal and unpaid care provided to a dependent
person by family members, other relatives, or friends
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Although parents provide caregiving to children,
the term is more often applied to the needs of
elderly men and women.
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80% of caregivers are family members,
daughters make up 75%
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Elder abuse
Elder Abuse
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From passive neglect to active torment
In many forms: verbal, emotional, financial, and
physical
More than 1 million a year severely abused
Abuse is most likely to occur if the caregiver:
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Works full time
Cares for young children
Is poor
Feels little affection for the older person
Finds the elderly person very difficult
Gets no support or help
Ageism
Prejudice and discrimination against older people
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Like racism and sexism, ageism builds physical
traits into stereotypes.
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Older people are more likely than younger people
to be mentally and physically impaired.
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Friedan: Ageism is deeply rooted in our culture.
The Elderly: A Minority?
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Streib: Elderly aren’t a minority.
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Minority status is usually both permanent and exclusive.
Being elderly is an open status because people are elderly
for only part of their lives.
Everyone who has the good fortune to live long enough
grows old.
Elders at highest risk of being poor or disadvantaged fall
into categories of people who are at highest risk of being
poor throughout the life course.
Theoretical Perspective
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Structural-functional analysis
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Symbolic-interaction analysis
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Disengagement theory–Society enhances its orderly operation by
disengaging people from positions of responsibility as they reach
old age.
Activity theory–A high level of activity enhances personal
satisfaction in old age.
Social-conflict analysis
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Inequality based on age categories
Different opportunities and access to social resources create a
system of age stratification.
“Death, after all, is the only reality
that never lets you down.”
Pico Iyer
Death and Dying
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Historical patterns of death
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Modern separation of life and death
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Ethical issues: confronting death
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Death occurs when an irreversible state takes place.
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Living wills–Documents stating which medical procedures
an individual wants and doesn’t want under specific
conditions
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Euthanasia–Assisting in the death of a person suffering
from an incurable disease
A grim demographic fact is that after
age 30, a person’s chance of death
doubles every eight years.
Waldrop, 1992
Stages of Death and Bereavement
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Kübler-Ross: Most people usually
confront their own death in stages.
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Denial
Anger
Negotiation
Resignation
Acceptance
“One can experience an unconditional
affirmation of life only when one has accepted
death, not as contrary to life, but as an aspect of
it.”
Joseph Campbell
Bereavement
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Persistent profound grief and social disorientation
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Experts agree that how a family and friends view an
impending death affects the dying person.
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Hospice movement
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Bereavement is less intense for someone who accepts the
loved one’s death, and the relationship has reached a
satisfactory resolution.
The Future
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Increasing numbers
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Need to review support services for the elderly
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Availability and sufficiency
The elderly should experience a better quality of life.
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By 2050, there will be more elderly in the US than the entire
population in 1900.
Medical technology
Financial strength
Changes in how death is viewed