Transcript UNIT-1
Definitions of sociology (1) Comte :- Sociology is the science of social order and progress. (2) Ginsberg :- Sociology is the study of human interactions and interrelations, their conditions and consequences Scope of sociology :- The various aspects of society which are the subject matter of sociology are:(1) (2) (3) (4) Social organisation Culture Social institution Social structure Nature or characteristics of sociology :(1) (2) (3) (4) Sociology is a social science and not a Natural science Sociology is a positive science and not a normative science. Sociology is an abstract science not a concrete science. Sociology is a rational empirical science. Need or Importance of sociology :(a) (b) (c) (d) Sociology makes a scientific study of society. Sociology contributes to making good citizens. Sociology helps in conciliation. Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic worth and dignity of man. Meaning of society :- Society means group of peoples in a given area. Definitions of society :MacIver and page :- society is a system of usages and procedures, authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behaviour and of liberties. (b) G.D.H Cole :- Society is the complex of organised associations and institutions within the community. (a) Characteristics of society :(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Definite territory Progeny Culture Independence A demographic whole Social interaction Social organisation (1) (2) Human society Animal society Difference between Human and Animal society :(a) (b) (c) Brain :- Man think & behave in society whereas animal simply follow one another. capacity to stand straight :- The members of the human society can stand straight on their legs and can use their hands freely but the animals stand on four legs and have no hands to work. Behaviour :- Human society is based on reason or rational behaviour but animal society is based on reflex behaviour. Introduction :- The word community have been derived from the word of latin namely, ‘com’ meaning ‘together’ and ‘munis’ means ‘service’. Thus community means to serve together. Definitions of community :(a) (b) MacIver :-Community is “an area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence”. Bogardus :- Community is “a social group with some degree of “we feeling” and “living in a given area”. Characteristics of community :(1) (2) (3) (4) Community is a group of human beings living in a common area. Community is related to definite locality. The member of community use the same language, same mores, process and same attitude. Communities are not made or created by an act of will but are natural. (1) (2) Rural community Urban community Rural community :- A rural community consists of the social interaction of the people and their institution in the locality in which they live or dispressed from seads in a hamlate or village which from the centre of their common activities. Elements of Rural community :-There are various elements which help a rural community for its growth sustence and development briefly speaking they are land, water, tribnates, conditions, resources, agriculture, small scale trade, cottage industry, likewise social condition, peace, security, co-operation, labour force etc. are the important for a rural community to sustain. Urban community is a community with a high population density predominance of a non-agriculture accumulation, a high degree of specialization resulting in a complex division of labour and a formalized system of a local govt. Characteristics of Urban community :(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Social heterogeniety Secondary relation The anonymity of city life Secondary control Large scale division of labour and specialization Individuation Voluntary association (a) (b) (c) (d) (a) (b) (c) (d) RURAL :Rural society is homogeneous. It is marked by unity and uniformity. It is dominated by primary relation. Peoples are known for their simplicity, hospitality and frankness. People are more conservative, orthodox and dogmatic. URBAN :Urban society Is heterogeneous. It is known for its diversity and complexity. It is dominated by secondary relations. Urban peoples are known for their artificiality, narrow mindness and selfishness. People are progressive, they change welcome. (a) (b) (c) (d) (a) (b) (c) (d) COMMUNITY :Community is a group of people sharing a common life and a common area. The scope of community is narrow. Community may not have close relations. In a community differences and conflicts are avoided. SOCIETY :Society is arealess and shapeless. The society has wider scope. But society is a web of social relationships. In society likeness and conflict can exist side by side. Meaning of Association :organised for a Association is a group of peoples particular reason or some reasons. Definitions :- (a) MacIver and page :- Any organisation deliberately formed for the collective pursuit or some interest or set of interest which the member of it share is termed as association. (b) Gillin & Gillin :- An association is a group of individual united for a specific or purpose, or purposes and held together to recognized sanctioned modes of procedures and behaviour. Characteristics of Association :(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Association is a organisation of individuals. Specific & common purposes. Associations are based on Rules and Regulations. Association has legal existence and structure. Association are of temporary nature. (1) (2) (3) (4) (1) (2) (3) (4) ASSOCIATION :An association Is a group within community and is partial. Association is voluntary constituted. An association has some definite objectives. Association has a legal status. COMMUNITY :The community is a whole. Community comes into existence by itself. Community fulfils all the needs of its members. Community has no legal status. SOCIETY :(1) The aim of society is general well being of the individual. (2) Society may be organised or un-organised. (3) Society is marked by both co-operation and conflict. (4) Society is a system of social relationship. (1) (2) (3) (4) ASSOCIATION :Association is formed in the pursuit of particular purpose. Association must be organised. Association is based on co-operation alone. Association is a group of people. INTRODUCTION :- The term ‘group’ is used by human beings all over the world. There are various types of groups in the world but socialists are concerned only with social group. DEFINITIONS :(1) (2) Gillin & Gillin :- A social group grows out of and requires a situation which permits meaningful interest immulation and meaningful response between the individuals involved common focusing of attention, common interest and the development of certain common drives motivation. Robin. M. williams :- A social group is a given aggregate of people, playing interelated roles and recognised by themselves or others as a unit of interaction. Group is purely of individual in social relation. Mutual dependence and awareness. Mutual interaction. Voluntary & non-voluntary membership. Relative stability Social recognization. Definite rules and procedures. Division of labour. System of control. (1) (2) Any group is constitute by the fact that there is some interest which holds its members together. Normally there are two factors which are important in any group formation. These are :Like interest Common interest We can put it in brief in following manner :(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) There must be common territory. Similar physical characteristics. Kinship bond. Cultural factor and religious factor. Common faith, beliefs and values. (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (3) (4) C. H. COOLEY :Primary group Secondary group GILLIN & GILLIN :Voluntary group Non-Voluntary group GEORGE SIMMEL :Small group Large group BOGARDUS :Formal group Informal group R. BIERSTEDT :Statistical group Social group Associational group Societial group Primary group means those characterised by intimate face to face association & co-operation. They are primary in several sense but chiefly in that they are fundamental in framing the social nature and ideal of individuals. Characteristics of primary group :(1) Face to face association (2) Unspecialized association (3) Small size (4) Relative intimacy among participants (5) Personal relation (6) Primary control (a) According to MacIver The family The play group The group of friends The study group The partnership group The tribal council (b) & page :- According to K. Davis :- The family The neighbourhood The village The work team (c) According to C. H. Cooley :- The family The play group The neighbourhood Socialization and development of personality. Transformation of social being. Development of virtues and humanitarian qualities. Social control & strengthening of social organisation. Social security & fulfillment of basic need. Protection and unbringing of children. DEFINITIONS :(1) Ogburn & Nimkoff :- Groups are those which provide experience lacking in intimacy are called Secondary group. (2) Kingsley Davis :- Secondary group can be roughly defined as the opposite of everything already said about primary group. Characteristics of Secondary Group :- (a) Large size (b) Formal relationship (c) Indirect co-operation (d) Voluntary membership (e) Lack of intimacy. (f) Lack of likeness of purpose. (g) Active & inactive members. Trade union Workers union Clubs Political parties Medical association Educational committies Role in social control Fulfillment of human need in society System of wide range of contract. Helpful in specialization Better opportunity for personality development Provide knowledge of your Rights & Duties. ----------------------------------------------------------------- Miss.Dr Poonam Khanna B.A. LLB I Sem MARRIAGE FAMILY KINSHIP ECONOMICS INSTITUTION POLITICAL INSTITUTION RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION Social Institution are Organized and established ways of satisfying certain basic human needs. A social institution is a structure of society that is organized to meet the needs of people chiefly through well establised procedures. It is based on some idea It has a definite structure Social institution are means of social control It has some authority It is a unit of the cultural system It has clear objectives MEANING OF MARRIAGE *Marriage is the complex of social norms that define and control the relation of a mated pair to each other their offspring and society. CHARACTERISTICS OF OF MARRIAGE 1. Marriage is universal. 2. Marriage is basic for the formation of family. 3. Marriage forges a new social link. 4. Marriage is a result of civil and religious ceremony. RULES OF MARRIAGE OR MAIN RESTRICTIONS OR PROHIBITION OF HINDU MARRIAGE ENDOGAMY EXOGAMY HYPERGAMY HYPOGAMY MONOGAMY POLYANDRY POLYGAMY MARRIAGE BY CAPTURE ITS IN OTHER TRIBES MARRIAGE BY EXCHANGE MARRIAGE BY PURCHASE Hindu marriage is has religious basis Marriage has an irrevocable nature Marriage enables one to get rid of debt (rhino) Saptpati It Is No More A Sacrament Today. Today Marriage Is No More Essential For Individual. Individualistic Decision Dominate In Performance Of Marriage. The Aims And Object Of Marriage Have Changed Today. There Is A Change In Sacramental Nature Of Marriage. Equality In The Right And Duties Of Men And Women Both. Increase In Dowry System. Increase In Love Marriage And Inter Caste And Interreligious Marriage. Nature Change. Special Hindu marriage Act, 1954. Hindu Marriage Act, 1955. Anty Dowry Act. Act for Prohibition of child Marriage. Act of widow remarriage. Westernization Industrialization Women Movements Recent Legislation Globalization Political participation Equality and rules of Law Increase in the educational standards of women in India Economic freedom of women Urbanization TYPES OF MUSLIM MARRIAGE Nikha Mutah Fasid Distinction between Hindu & Muslim marriage o Both hindu and Muslim practice polygamy but law has prohibited polygamy among Hindu. o There are difference as regard to aim and objective. o Hindu marriage is a sacrament but Muslim marriage take it as a contract. o Hindu marriage is supposed to be almost permanent but Muslim marriage is temporary. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- In human context, a family (from Latin: familia) is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity (by recognized birth), affinity(by marriage), or coresidence/shared consumption (see Nurture kinship). Members of the immediate family may include a spouse, parent, brother and sister, and son and daughter. Members of the extended family may include grandparent, aunt, uncle, cousin, nephew and niece, or sibling-in-law. In most societies the family is the principal institution for the socialization of children. As the basic unit for raising children, anthropologists most generally classify family organization as matrifocal (a mother and her children); conjugal (a husband, his wife, and children; also called nuclear family); avuncular (for example, a grandparent, a brother, his sister, and her children); or extended family in which parents and children co-reside with other members of one parent's family. As a unit of socialization, the family is the object of analysis for anthropologists and sociologists of the family. Sexual relations among the members are regulated by rules concerning incest such as the incest taboo. Family also spend time together to know each other. A mating relationship: A mating relationship is the precondition to establish the family, without it family cannot be formed. The mating relationship or marital relationship may be permanent or temporary, it is immaterial but family cannot be thought of without it. A form of marriage: Marriage is the base of family. Marriage may be monogamous or polygamous or polyandrous and in any form. It is the social institution which helps to establish mating relationship and thereby family is formed. A system of nomenclature and reckoning descent: Each family is identified by a distinct nomenclature of its own. The members of the family are known by the nomenclature or by a distinctive name. The system of nomenclature involves a mode of reckoning descent. In different societies the descent is traced differently. In matrilineal society it is traced from mother and in patrilineal society it is from father. In some societies it may be traced from both father and mother. An Economic Provision: Every family has an economic provision to satisfy the economic needs of its members. All the members of the family more or less share with each other. Usually, it is the look out of the head of the family who tries to make all possible arrangement to provide economic comfort to his family members. A common habitation: Each family has a common home in which all the members can live together. A living or dwelling place is necessary to bear child and care child. Otherwise, child bearing and child rearing cannot be adequately performed in its absence. Besides the general characteristics, a family possesses the following distinctive features which distinguish it from all other groups or association. Universality: Family is the most universal of all the groups, associations and institutions in the human society. It has existed in every society ancient, medieval and modern and is found in all parts of the world. Even the animal society is not free from it. In this connection, MacIver has rightly pointed out that, "It is found in all societies, at all stages of social development, and exists far below the human level among a myriad species of animals. Almost every human being is or has been a member of some family". On the basis of marriage: Family has been classified into three major types: Polygamous or polygynous family Polyandrous family Monogamous family On the basis of the nature of residence family can be classified into three main forms. Family of matrilocal residence Family of patrilocal residence Family of changing residence On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be classified into two main types Matrilineal family Patrilineal family On the basis of size or structure and the depth of generations family can be classified into two main types. Nuclear or the single unit family Joint family Joint Family System : In ancient India, almost the peoples were living in as joint family with some good relationships. But from last few years, the joint family's in India almost going to finished. As we all know that a family is plays an important role in the progress of any person, and family is a social process in which many functions can be expressed like , economic functions, sexual functions, educational function etc, you know that major function of a good family is goes to socialisation, it is true. According to me, there are so many benefits of joint family in big country like India, by living in a joint family we can create a model future of families. It is family when we are born as Child and from a long way we are living with our parents and with other relatives, because of we are not dependent person own self due to less experience of When the Child born in a family, from where he gets the most important things from own parents, or from own elders. In India, with the increasing of population and with the decreasing of per man area the family and other individual are going with a stress filled life due to not living in joint family. We can live in a joint family through honest communication, with love and respect, with the expectoration of elders members. Also we all know that a joint family is a group of 2-3 primary family or also we can say more than one primary family and whenever a family is consists between grandfather, parents, sons , daughter, then we can say it as Lineal Joint Family. age. Advantages of Joint Family System 1. In a joint family, all work can be shared with all members of the family. 2. If anyone members of the family is is doubt, then he can get some good guidence from his seniors members in the family, and there is no tension in any problem in a joint family. 3. By living in a joint family we can improve our relationships, love, with our parent or with our olders family members by living in joint family. 4. Common residence, though an important feature, is not necessarily a determining factor for the formation of a joint family. The reason is not far to seek. A number of persons may live under one roof, as in the case of an apartment. But they do not necessarily form a joint family. 5.The members of a joint family In a joint family, the ownership, production and consumption of wealth takes place on a joint basis. Both movable and immovable properly of the family is owned jointly. The joint property is managed by the head of the family, who is known as the ‘Karta’. He acts as a trustee and looks after the welfare of all the members of the family. The total earnings of all the family members are pooled together. Family expenses are met out of those earnings. take food cooked at one hearth. 6. Joint family functions on the basis of joint responsibility. If the elder brother, for example, is hospitalised, it is the responsibility of his younger brothers to bear the medical expenses. Similarly, if the father incurs loan in connection with the marriage of his daughter, it is the responsibility of his sons to repay the loan. Important functions of a joint family 1. Economic Functions: If we consider the role of joint family from the economic point of view, a number of advantages become visible: (i) First of all, it hinders the sub-division or fragmentation of the landed property. This results in increased production, (ii) Secondly, all the members, men, women and children, in a joint family perform their work on a co-operative basis, (iii) Thirdly, due to co-operative work, hardly any amount of money is spent on hired labour. On the other hand, saving is done as the household articles are purchased collectively and as the money which would have been spent on hired labour is saved. 2. Protective Function: The joint family acts as a protective home for those who are physically weak or handicapped. It also provides protection to mentally weak members of the family. It is an asylum for the orphans and a comfortable home for the sick, old and destitute. 3. Recreational Function: The members of a joint family are provided with many means of recreation in a friendly and stimulating atmosphere. The sources of recreation in a joint family are the stammering of infants, affection of mother, love and emotion among siblings and the joking relationships. 4. Acting as an agency of social control: The joint family is an informal agency of social control. It controls the harmful and deviant tendencies of young members. It suppresses the anti-social and unsociable activities of its members. 5.Division of Labour: Although all the members of a joint family work, they do not do the similar work. Rather they are given work in accordance with their own capacities. Agriculture being the main occupation of the rural people and joint family being the product of the rural society, all the members of a peasant family are engaged in the agricultural field in different capacities. Important disintegration of joint family Rapid Industrialization: The joint family system worked well in a rural -agrarian society. But when India chose the path of rapid industrialization, many new factories and industries were setup at distant places. The rural ties started migrating to those distant places in search of employment in industry. The migrants left their own villages and families. The joint families suffered set back. Urbanization: The urban centers provide people with various amentias of life concerning transport and communication, sanitation and health, education and employment, etc. People are attracted by the urban civilization and there is rural to urban type of migration. As it becomes difficult to maintain an extended family or joint family in the cities or towns due to high cost of urban living and problems of accommodation, people afford to life in the nuclear type of families. Rapid growth of population: India is an overpopulated country. Rapid growth of population has brought increasing pressure on land. Rapid development of Transport and Communication: Due to lack of developed transport and communication the rural ties were forced to live together in the joint families in the villages. They could not move easily from one place to another during those days. But now-a-days there has been rapid development of transport and communication facilities along with expansion of the network. People can move from one place to another quickly and easily. This has enabled them to change their traditional ancestral occupation and choose occupations according to their caliber and competence. Such factors have caused the disruption of the joint family system. Impact of the western civilization: Due to the impact of the west, the living and thinking of the Indians have been changed. British rule in India presented before the Indians the western type of small family based on freedom, equality and love between man and woman. The members who lived in the joint family became conscious of the positive aspects of the single family system. At the same time, they also become aware of the disadvantages of the joint family system based on that concept of sacrifice, responsibility and devotion. Finally, individualism as a gift of w culture, gave rise to a separatist tendency within the joint family which resulted in its decline. Decline of Agriculture and Village Industries: In the past the rural people were engaged in agriculture, agroindustry and co industries. Such occupations by the rural ties boosted the joint family system. But under changed circumstances, the commodities produced by the rural people fail to compete the factory products in respect of both quality and cost. As a result, the agro-industries cottage industries have been closed down. Furthermore, the heavy pressure on the agriculture land caused surplus of laborers who preferred to move to cities and industrial centers! Search of employment. Role of New Social Legislations Some social legislation which has been enacted by the state legislature and the Parliament, particularly after achievement of independence, has adversely affected the joint family system in India. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, has enabled women to seek divorce depending upon certain circumstances. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 enabled the women to claim a share of their father's property. The Civil Marriage Act, 1954 made it possible for the adult boys and girls to marry on their own. All these social legislations have some negative effects on the features of joint family such as holding property in common, taking food cooked in a common kitchen, etc.--------------- In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of most humans in most societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox states that "the study of kinship is the study of what man does with these basic facts of life - mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc." Human society is unique, he argues, in that we "are working with the same raw material as exists in the animal world, but [we] can conceptualize and categorize it to serve social ends.These social ends include the socialization of children, and the formation of basic economic, political, and religious groups. Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures (i.e. kinship studies). Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms in the study of kinship, such as descent, descent group, lineage, affine, cognateand fictive kinship. Further, even within these two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent (one's social relations during development), and by marriage. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called "affinity" in contrast to the relationships that arise in one's group of origin, which may be called one's descent group. In some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods[ or animal ancestors (totems). This may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. 1. Primary, Secondary and Tertiary: Family is a social group consisting of persons related by the bonds of blood as well as of marriage. That is consisting of consartguinals as well as finials. The eight types of kins represented in a nuclear family, i.e. mother, father, daughter, son, brother, sister, husband and wife, all these are called as ‘primary kins’. But the primary kins of one’s primary kins are known as ‘secondary kins’ such as father’s brother or mother’s sister or sister’s husband, etc. Similarly, the primary kins of one’s secondary kins are known as ‘tertiary kins’. This is how the net work of kinship may extend to any degrees. This is called as the range of kinship. In primitive societies it’s very common for the peoples to recognize the kins up to the range of fifth or sixth degrees or even beyond. But in modern societies this range seldom goes beyond the third degrees kins. That is why primitive societies are categorized as broad ranged kinship systems while modern societies are characterised as narrow ranged kinship systems. 2. Cross and Parallel Cousins: ‘Cousin’ is a third degree kin but at least four types of kins are covered by this word of English language. For example—one’s father’s brother’s child, father’s sister’s son or daughter, mother’s sister’s sons and daughters and the mother’s brother’s sons or daughters all are his or her cousins. But in practice in different societies all these kins are categorized as the cross cousins of the parallel cousins. The sons and daughters of a brother and a sister are known as parallel cousins. In most of the societies barring a few exceptions, parallel cousins do not marry while in a large number of societies cross cousins are expected to marry. When groups, already related by the bonds of marriage, again choose to restrict their life mates among the some groups in the subsequent generation and thus renew and restreng then their relations the practice is called alliance. In a large number of primitive societies two groups (class) keep on exchanging their daughter’s and son’s generation after generation thereby strengthening their bonds of mutual cooperation in everyday life— particularly in economic activities. 3. Unilateral and Bilateral: Kinds may also be variously categorized on the basis of generation, relative age and sex. They may also be categorised as the kins of father’s side of ‘Mortician Kins’. For many purposes and occasions such as participation in rituals and ceremonies, and also in passing on the family name from one generation to other. The rules of inheritance of property in every society are also restricted to the father’s or mother’s side kins. Thus the rule of recognition of kins (for different purposes) of either side only is known as wild ‘unilateral’ and the rule and practice of recognizing kins of both the sides is known as ‘bilateral’. 4. Quasi Kins: As mentioned earlier, kinship though rooted in biological facts of birth, marriage and death, is by and large more a question of social recognition. Thus there is, in every society, a category of quasi kins of putative or fictive kins. The disciples of the same teacher or the followers of the same Godfather may be having as if consanguine kins. A universal example of social recognition is the practice of adoption. A ceremonial recognition of a child as one’s own biologically produced off spring speaks of overriding nature of social recognition. Among the polyandrous Todas of India, it is the ceremonial presentation of a miniature bow and arrow by a brother to the common wife that confers the status of fatherhood. In all polyandrous societies paternity is a dubious question. They must have some social mechanism to solve the riddle of fatherhood. Among the polyandrous khasa people, it is the elder brother who enjoys the status and privileges of fatherhood by virtue of tradition and social recognition. Kinship Usages Kinship usages or the rules of kinship are significant in understanding kinship system. They serve two main purposes: They create groups or special groupings or kin. For examplefamily extended family, clan etc. Kinship rules govern the role of relationships among the kins. Kinship usage provides guidelines for interaction among persons in these social groupings. It defines proper and acceptable role relationships. Thus it acts as a regulator of social life. Some of these relationships are: avoidance, teknonymy, avunculate, amitate, couvades and joking relationship. Avoidance: It means that two kins normally of opposite sex should avoid each other. In almost all societies avoidance rules prescribe that men and women must maintain certain amount of modesty in speech, dress and gesture in a mixed company. Thus a father-in-law should avoid daughter-in-law. The purdah system in Hindu family in the north illustrates the usage of avoidance. Teknonymy: According to the usage of this usage a kin is not referred directly but is referred to through another kin. In a traditional Hindu family wife does not directly utter the name of her husband but refers to her husband as the father of so and so. Avunculate: It refers to the special relationship that persists in some societies between a man and his mother's brother. This usage is found in a matriarchal system in which prominence is given to the maternal uncle in the life of his nephews and nieces. Amitate: The usage of amitate gives special role to the father's sister. Here father's sister is given more respect than the mother. Among Toads the child gets the name not through its parents but through the father's sister. Naming the child is her privilege. Couvade: The usage of couvades prevalent among the Khasi and the Todas tribes makes the husband to lead the life of an invalid along with his wife whenever she gives birth to a child. He refrains from the active work, takes diet and observes some taboos which are observed by his wife. According to Malinowski the usage of couvade contributes to a strong marital bond between the husband and wife. Joking relationship: A joking relationship involves a particular combination of friendliness and antagonism between individuals and groups in certain social situations. In these situations one individual or group is allowed to mock or ridicule the other without offence being taken. The usage of the joking relationship permits to tease and make fun of the other. 1)Kinship assigns guidelines for interactions between persons. It defines proper, acceptable role relationship between fatherdaughter, brother-sister etc. (2)Kinship determines family line relationships, gotra and kula. (3)Kinship decides who can marry with whom and where marital relationship are taboo. (4)Kinship helps us to determine the rights and obligations of the members in all the sacraments and religious practices starting from birth to death. (5)Kinship system maintains solidarity of relationships. (6)In rural and tribal societies kinship or kinship relations determine the rights and obligations of the family and marriage, system of production and political power. (7)Kinship through its different usages regulates the behaviour of different kin. (8)Kinship helps in (through kinship terms) designating kin of various types such as classificatory and descriptive. 9)Kinship through its usages creates special groupings of kin. (10)Kinship rules govern the role relationships among kins. (11)Kinship acts as a regulator of social life. (12)Kinship influences ownership of land, concept of wealth and the system of production and its use. Bases of Kinship: Famous Sociologist H.M. Johnson identified six important bases of kinship which are described below: (1) Sex: Kinship relation is differentiated in each society on the basis of sex. The term ‘brother’ and ‘sister’ shows the sex of blood relations. (2) Generation: Kinship tie is established between the persons in relation to generation. The term ‘father’ and ‘son’, grand-father and grandson show the relation between two generations. (3) Close relations or intimacy: It refers to relationships through marriage. It does not based on blood relations. The intimacy or relationship with son-in-law and father’s sister’s husband is based on close relations or intimacy. (4) Blood Relations: The kinship based on blood relations is divided into two such as lineal and collateral. Close blood relatives in a direct line of descent are called lineal relatives. Grandfather, father, son and grandson are the example of lineal relatives. Other descendants of one’s lineal kin such as uncle and their children refer to collateral relatives. (5) Division: This bases of kinship based on division and sub-division. Almost all kinship relations are divided into two parts. For example father’s father i.e. paternal grand father and mother’s father i.e. maternal grand father. Similarly brother’s daughter and sister’s daughter, son’s son and daughter’s son are two types of relations. (6) Binding Thread: Kinship ties are connected with a linkage. The affinal relatives or consanguineous relatives acts as binding thread. In other words the binding thread of these relations is close or intimate blood relationships. For example the relationship of father-in-law is based on the relation binding thread either of the husband or that of the wife. Importance of Kinship: Kinship has several importance in a social structure. Kinship decides who can marry with whom and where marital relationships are taboo. It determines the rights and obligations of the members in all the sacraments and religious practices from birth to death in family life. Importance of kinship is observed on the occasion of marriage and family functions. It determines family line relationships i.e. gotra and kula. ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Institutional economics focuses on understanding the role of the evolutionary process and the role of institutions in shaping economic behaviour. Its original focus lay in Thorstein Veblen's instinct-oriented dichotomy between technology on the one side and the "ceremonial" sphere of society on the other. Its name and core elements trace back to a 1919 American Economic Review article by Walton H. Hamilton Institutional economics emphasizes a broader study of institutions and views markets as a result of the complex interaction of these various institutions (e.g. individuals, firms, states, social norms). The earlier tradition continues today as a leading heterodox approach to economics. A significant variant is the new institutional economics from the later 20th century, which integrates later developments of neoclassical economics into the analysis.Law and economics has been a major theme since the publication of the Legal Foundations of Capitalism by John R. Commons in 1924. Behavioral economics is another hallmark of institutional economics based on what is known about psychology and cognitive science, rather than simple assumptions of economic behavior. New Economics Institutions With the new developments in the economic theory of organizations, information, property rights, and transaction costs, an attempt was made to integrate institutionalism into more recent developments in mainstream economics, under the title new institutional economics. The economy is the institution that provides for the production and distribution of goods and services, which people in every society need. Sometimes they can provide these things for themselves, and sometimes they rely on others to provide them. When people rely on others for goods or services, they must have something to exchange, such as currency (in industrialized societies) or other goods or services (in nonindustrialized societies). The customs surrounding exchange and distribution of good and services shape societies in fundamental ways. Sociologists use two approaches when studying :society In macro sociology, sociologists analyze large-scale social forces, such as institutions. They identify and analyze the structure of societies. The second approach sociologists use is micro sociology, the study of social interaction. These sociologists focus on face-to-face interaction, how people act around others. This method is focused more on individuals than groups. Economic Systems The two dominant economic systems in the world are capitalism and socialism. Most societies have varying blends of the two systems. Common hybrids of capitalism and socialism are welfare capitalism and state capitalism. Capitalism Capitalism is a system under which resources and means of production are privately owned, citizens are encouraged to seek profit for themselves, and success or failure of an enterprise is determined by free-market competition. Socialism Socialism is a system under which resources and means of production are owned by the society as a whole, rights to private property are limited, the good of the whole society is stressed more than individual profit, and the government maintains control of the economy. Example: China is a socialist country. The government owns and controls almost all natural resources. Welfare capitalism Welfare capitalism is a system that features a marketbased economy coupled with an extensive social welfare system that includes free health care and education for all citizens. Example: Sweden allows private business ownership, but the government controls a significant part of the economy. High taxes support an extensive array of social welfare programs. State capitalism State capitalism is a system under which resources and means of production are privately owned but closely monitored and regulated by the government. Socialism vs. Capitalism No one economic system has succeeded in satisfying all the needs of its citizens. Several economic studies over the past few generations have shown that, in general, citizens in societies with capitalist economies enjoy a higher standard of living than those in socialist societies. Marx’s Economic Theory Philosopher and historian Karl Marx believed that the economy was the basic institution of society and that all other institutions, such as family and education, served to fuel the economy. As societies became more industrialized, he theorized, they also became more capitalistic. Marx disliked the fact that capitalism created a two-tiered system consisting of factory owners and factory workers, in which the groups were constantly in conflict with each other. Factory owners wanted to pay their workers as little as possible to maximize profits. Factory workers, on the other hand, wanted to make as much money as possible. The advantage was always with the owners, who could choose to fire workers who wanted too much and hire workers who would work for less. Marx was a conflict theorist, believing that in any capitalist society there was always conflict between the owners of the means of production and the workers. He believed that the only way to resolve the conflict was for workers to unite, mount a revolution, and overthrow their oppressors. Marx believed that once the dust settled after the revolution, all societies would be communist, meaning that all the means of production would be owned by everyone and all profits would be shared equally by everyone . Importance of Economic Institutions Economics has variously been defined as a social science that involves itself in the study and analysis of production, distribution as well as consumption of goods and services. Therefore, in some circumstances, when considering which type of institutions fall under this category, some economist choose to leave out regulatory institutions and others such as non-profit organizations. This leaves us with three categories: Manufacturers, distributors and consumers. These three can informally be referred to as the categories of economic institution. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Advanced modern economic theories pay very close attention to institutions. In institutional economies, institutions are deemed to play a very central role in shaping the behavior of other players in an economic setting. For example, in the world today there are some very huge multinational companies, which have overwhelming market presence and a lot of financial prowess. Such companies have the power to influence key aspects of the market such as demand and supply, as well as pricing. It is not uncommon nowadays for huge companies to buy, or merge with small companies which are supposed to be competitors in the same market. Big companies also have the power to influence consumer preferences through advertisements in the media. -------------------------------------------------------- Political institutions are organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws; that mediate conflict; make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems; and otherwise provide representation for the populous. Examples of such political institutions include political parties, trade unions, and the (legal) courts. The term 'Political Institutions' may also refer to the recognized structure of rules and principles within which the above organizations operate, including such concepts as the right to vote, responsible government, and accountability. There are several definitions of "political system": A political system is a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as political parties, trade unions, lobby groups), the relationships between those institutions and the political norms and rules that govern their functions (constitution, election law). A political system is composed of the members of a social organization (group) who are in power. A political system is a complete set of institutions, interest groups (such as political parties, trade unions, lobby groups), the relationships between those institutions and the political norms and rules that govern their functions (constitution, election law). A political system is a system that necessarily has two properties: a set of interdependent components and boundaries toward the environment with which it interacts. A political system is a concept in which theoretically regarded as a way of the government makes a policy and also to make them more organized in their administration. A political system is one that ensures the maintaining of order and rationality in the society and at the same time makes it possible for some other institutions to also have their grievances and complaints put across in the course of social existence. Commonalities between political systems: Interdependent parts Citizens Culture Government Boundaries Citizenship Territory Sociology of Political Systems Property Sociology of political systems The sociological interest in political systems is figuring out who holds the power in the relationship of the government and its people and how the government’s power is used. There are three types of political systems that sociologists consider. Authoritarianism In authoritarian governments, the people have no power or representation and it is characterized by absolute or blind obedience to [formal] authority, as against individual freedom and related to the expectation of unquestioning obedience. The elite leaders handle all economic, military, and foreign relations. Dictatorships are examples of authoritarianism. Totalitarianism is the most extreme form of authoritarianism because it controls all aspects of life including communication between citizens, censors the media, and threatens by means of terror. Monarchies A monarchy is a government controlled by a king or queen determined by a predisposed line of sovereignty.* In the modern world there are two types of monarchies, absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. An absolute monarchy works like a dictatorship in that the king has complete rule over his country.* A constitutional monarchy gives the royal family limited powers and usually works in accordance with an elected body of officials.* Social revolutions of the 18th, 19th, and 20th century overthrew the majority of existing monarchies in favor of a more democratic governments and the rise of the lower-class. Democracy A democracy is a form of government in which the citizens create and vote for laws directly or indirectly via representatives.* The idea of democracy stems back from ancient Greece and the profound works of ancient academics. However, the presence of democracy does not always mean citizen’s wishes will be equally represented. For example, in many democratic countries immigrants, and racial and ethnic minorities do not receive the same rights as the majority citizens. They have grouped these functions into two categories: (1) Input functions—political socialization, interest articulation, interest aggregation, and political communication; and (2) output functions—rule making, rule application and rule adjudication. Functions of a Political System: The following main functions of a political system: 1. To maintain integration of society by determining norms. 2. To adapt and change elements of social, economic, religious systems necessary for achieving collective (political) goals. 3. To protect the integrity of the political system from outside threats. 4. To make laws and maintain the rule of law. 5. To provide development avenues to the citizen. 6.To provide social justice to people in society. 7. Arrangement of fundamental rights. ------------------------------------------------------------- Sociologists study religion the same way they study other social institutions, like education or government. The aim is primarily to understand religions, but included in trying to understand religions is the aim of trying to predict what religions will eventually do (or what will become of religions). To do this, sociologists employ demographic techniques, survey analysis, ethnography, and various other methodological approaches. It is important to note at the beginning of this chapter that sociologists study religion not to prove, disprove or normatively evaluate religion. Sociologists aren't interested in whether a religion is right or wrong. This requires sociologists to assume a relativistic perspective that basically takes a neutral stance toward issues of right or wrong or true or false. That said, the social scientific study of religion can be challenging from a faith standpoint as it provides alternative, naturalistic explanations for many elements of religion (e.g., the sources of conversion experiences Definitions of Religion The starting point for any study of religion should begin with a definition of the concept. This is particularly important in the study of religion because the definition determines which groups will be included in the analysis. Three general definitions have been proposed, each of which will be discussed briefly. Each definition has its merits and detriments, but what one often finds is that the definition of religion employed by a particular researcher or in the investigation of a particular topic depends on the question being asked. Perhaps the most well known definition of religion is that provided by Emile Durkheim Durkheim argued that the definition of religion hinged on the distinction between things that are sacred (set apart from daily life) and things that are profane (everyday, mundane elements of society). The sacred elements of social life are what make up religion. For example, the Torah in Judaism is sacred and treated with reverence and respect. The reverential treatment of the Torah would be contrasted with all sorts of more mundane things like cars or toys, which, for most people, are not considered sacred. Yet, the acute reader will be quick to point out that for some, cars (and even toys) are considered sacred and treated almost as reverentially as the Torah is treated in Judaism. This introduces one of the most significant criticisms of this definition - the typology can include things that are not traditionally understood to be religious (like cars or toys). As a result, the definition is extremely broad and can encompass substantial elements of social life. For instance, while most people in the United States would not consider their nationalism to be religious, they do hold the flag, the nation's capitol, and other national monuments to be sacred. Under this definition, nationalism would be considered religion. Religion as Supernature The third social scientific definition views religion as the collective beliefs and rituals of a group relating to supernature.This view of religion draws a sometimes ambiguous line between beliefs and rituals relating to empirical, definable phenomena and those relating to indefinable or unobservable phenomena, such as spirits, god(s), and angels. This definition is not without its problems as well, as some argue it can also include atheists who have a specific position against the existence of a god (or gods). Yet because the beliefs and rituals are understood to be shared by a group, this definition could be argued to exclude atheists. Despite the problems with this last definition, it does most closely adhere to the traditional (and popular) view of what constitutes a religion. Salient Features of Religion Most religions include belief in the supernatural (spirits, gods, God) or belief in some other Ultimate Reality beyond, yet connected to, human experience and existence. Religions strongly encourage or require prescribed ritual activities for individuals and communities of faith. Rituals connected to birth and death frame the lifecycle in all religions. Most religions celebrate and reenact sacred stories through annual rituals. Religious life engages and incorporates common emotional and intuitive human feelings. These feelings include a sense of the wonder and mystery of existence, joy, guilt, and the bond experienced in the community. Religious worship often appeals to feelings of guilt and remorse, as well as joy and thanksgiving. Religions require and promote social organization and institutional forms to carry out the necessary functions of worship and leadership, preserving orthodox teachings and practices. Protestant Christians don't have a pope, and Sunni Muslims don't have ayatollahs (supreme religious leaders) as Shiite Muslims do. All communities, however, have religious functionaries and institutional structures. Religions promise an inner peace and harmony despite the vicissitudes of life. Discovering meaning that transcends physical existence enables people of faith to overcome the challenges posed by disease, evil, and injustice that permeate life and society. The religions that have stood the test of time have offered hope and meaning that move beyond mere physical survival. Importance of Religion (1) Religion explains individual suffering Man does not live by knowledge alone. He is an emotional creature. Religion serves to the emotions of man in times of his sufferings and disappointment. On God religion puts faith and entertains the belief that some unseen power moves in mysterious ways to make even his loss meaningful. In this way religion gives release from sorrow and release from fear. It helps man to bear his frustration and integrate his personality. In Sociology the word 'religion' is used in a wider sense, than that is used in religious books. Thus some sociologists define religion as those institutionalized system of beliefs, symbols, value that provide groups of men with solution to the question of ultimate meaning. Though the religion is a highly personal thing, yet it has a social aspect and social role to play. It has been a powerful agency in society and performs many important social functions. According to A. Green, religion has three universal functions. These are: (2) Religion enhances self-importance Religion expands one's self to infinite proportions. Man unites himself with the Infinite and feels ennobled. Society also gains from the self-flattery provided by religious belief. Religion assures a greater reward in the afterlife to worldly failures than to successful life. Such kind of assurance encourages members to continue to play their part in society. (3) Religion comes as a source of social cohesion Religion is the ultimate source of social cohesion. The primary requirement of society is the possession of social values by which individuals control the action of self and others and through which society is perpetuated. Science and technology cannot create this value. Religion is the foundation upon which these values rest. Children should obey their parents, should not tell lie, women should be faithful to men, people should be honest and Virtuous, are some of the social values which maintain social cohesion. 4. Religion encourages social welfare Religion has also performed some other services to humanity like the provision of work, the priesthood often dedicated to art and culture. The priesthood lays the foundation of medicine. It also fulfils the functions of scholars and scientists. Religion has served humanity through spreading of education and also creating the habit of charity among the people who open many charitable institutions like hospitals, rest houses, temples and to help the poor. (5) Religion is the agency of social control Religion provides a model for living. It upholds certain ideals and values. The believer imbibes these ideals and values in his life. Religion can help youth generation to become moral, disciplined and socialized citizens of society. (6) Religion controls economic life Max Weber was of the view that religion also controls the economic life. To Weber, capitalism grew in the Protestant nations like England, U.S.A. It did not grow in Italy and Spain where the people are Catholic. The Hindus lay great stress on spiritual progress than on material progress. Hence, materialism could not grow in India. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- An educational institution is a place where people of different ages gain an education, including preschools, childcare, elementary schools, and universities. Types of educational institution include the following: Preschool Kindergarten Nursery Play school Elementary school (grade school), primary school Middle school Comprehensive school Secondary school Comprehensive school High school Upper school Independent school (UK) Academy (English school) University-preparatory school Boarding school Gymnasium Hauptschule Realschule Further and higher education College Career college Community college Junior college Liberal arts college Sixth form college Technical college or Institute of Technology University college Institute of technology (Polytechnic) University Corporate university International university Local university Jamiah Medieval university Nizamiyya Private university Public university University of the Third Age Urban university Vocational university Specialized schools or institutes of higher education Art school, design schools, etc. Vocational school Academy Finishing school The term “tribe” means a group of people that have lived at a particular place from time immemorial. Anthropologically, the tribe is a system of social organisation which includes several local groups, such as villages and districts, and normally includes a common territory, a common language and a common culture. Constitutionally a tribe is he who has been mentioned in the scheduled list of Indian constitution under Article 342(i) and 342(ii) . “Tribals” are found in almost all Indian states. Currently there are between 258 and 540 scheduled tribe communities. The population of these communities varies from 31 people of Jarwa tribe to over 7 million Gonds. The small communities, comprising less than 1000 people, include the Andamanese, Onge, Oraon, Munda, Mina, Khond, and Saora. According to recent study there are 6 main tribes in Chhatisgarh. They are Gond, Baiga, Halba, Kamar, Bhunjia, Korwa. The quality of life of tribal people during the pre-independence period was more deplorable and their main occupation was hunting, gathering of wood and forest products, and primitive shifting cultivation. Due to destruction of forest and non availability of proper facilities, tribal people were forced to lead a poor quality of life. After independence with the adoptation of Indian constitution in 1950, special attention was given to the upliftment of the tribal people under the ‘’article 48’’. It was mandatory on the part of the state government to take all efforts to improve economic, social, and educational standards of the tribal people. Due to the welfare programmes, tribal communities also made themselves conscious about their own clan's upliftment. Now tribes are engaged in struggle for survival. They seek identity, autonomy, equality, and empowerment. They are moving out of ancestral lands to participate in all institutions of state. All tribes or clans have their own unique cultures including language. India is home to a large number of tribes with a population of about 70 million. In terms of geographical distribution, about 55% of tribes lived in central India, 28% in west, 12% in northeast India, 4% in South India and 1% elsewhere. These communities are actively working to preserve their rich cultures through broad institutional efforts. Definite Common Topography: Tribal people live within a definite topography and it is a common place for all the members of a particular tribe occupying that region. In the absence of a common but definite living place, the tribals will lose other characteristics of a tribal life, like common language, way of living and community sentiment etc. Sense of Unity: Unless and until, a group living in a particular area and using that area as a common residence, does not possess the sense of unity, it cannot be called a tribe. Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The very existence of a tribe depends upon the tribal’s sense of unity during the times of peace and war. Endogamous Group: Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and marriage within the tribe is highly appreciated and much applauded. But the pressing effects of changes following the forces of mobility have also changed the attitude of tribals and now, inter-tribe marriages are becoming more and more common. Common Dialect: Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect. This element further strengthens their sense of unity. Ties of Blood-relationship: Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful force inculcating sense of unity among the tribals. Protection Awareness: Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and infiltration and for this a single political authority is established and all the powers are vested in this authority. The safety of the tribal is left to the skill and mental power of the person enjoying political authority. The tribal chief is aided by a tribal committee, in the events of contingencies. Tribe is divided into a number of small groups and each group is headed by its own leader. The chief of a group works according to the directives received by him from the tribal chief. Distinct Political Organization: Every tribe has its own distinct political organisation which looks after the interests of tribal people. The whole political authority lies in the hands of a tribal chief. In some tribes, tribal committees exist to help the tribal chief in discharging his functions in the interests of the tribe. Common Culture: Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity, common language, common religion, common political organisation. Common culture produces a life of homogeneity among the tribals. Caste A caste is a social category to which a person belongs involuntarily (one's social status is ascribed); a caste contrasts with a social class. A caste system, then, is a social structure in which people belong to such social categories; historically, an example is the caste system of India. In sociology, a caste system describes one form of social stratification. Castes also explain why some societies offer little social mobility: if a person occupies a low social status in that person's caste, then it is difficult or impossible for that person to achieve a higher status, as typically one cannot change one's caste. Interaction between people of different castes is restricted; for example, commonly people must practice endogamy (marriage within their own caste). Essential characteristics of Caste Segmental division of society: Under Caste System society is divided into several small social groups called castes. Each of these castes is a well developed social group, the membership which is based on birth. Since membership is based on birth, mobility from one caste to another is impossible. Each caste has its own traditional social status, occupations, customs rules and regulations. Hierarchy: According to Prof Ghurye each of the linguistics areas, there are about 200 castes which can be graded and arranged into a hierarchy on the basis of their social precedence. At the top of this hierarchy is the touchable caste. Restriction of commensurability and social intercourse: Every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regard to food drink and social inter-course. The general rule is that the member of caste should accept ‘Kachcha food’ the food in the preparation of which waster is added only from either their own caste of caste ritually higher that their own. They are also required to observe certain restrictions while accepting water from members of other castes. Differential civil and religious privileges and disabilities: In a caste society, there is an un-equal distribution of privileges and disabilities among its members. While the higher caste people enjoy all the privilege, the lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation: Choice of occupation is not free under Caste System. Each caste or a group of allied castes is traditionally associated with a particular occupation. Occupations are hereditary and the members of a caste are expected to follow their traditional occupation without fail. Restriction of marriage: Castes are divided into sub-castes and each subcaste is an endogamous group. Endogamy, according to some thinkers is the essence of Caste System. Every caste or sub-caste insists that its members should marry within the group. A gram panchayat is the cornerstone of a local self-government organisation in India of the Panchayati raj system at the village or small town level, and has a Sarpanch as its elected head. The role of Panchayat organizations under British Colonial rule were strengthened, but in post-independence they have been given little right of co-determination. The failed attempts to deal with local matters at the national level brought back, in 1992, the reintroduction of panchayats for their previously used purpose as an organization for local self-governance. As of 2002 there were about 265,000 gram panchayats in India. A panchayat is needed for every town and village. Sarpanch The Sarpanch, or elected head, has the responsibilities of village Maintaining street lights, construction and repair work of roads in villages and also the village markets, fairs, collection of tax, festivals and celebrations Keeping a record of births, deaths and marriages in the village Looking after public health and [2] by providing facilities for sanitation and drinking water Providing free education To organise the meetings of gram sabha (ग्रामसभा) and gram panchayat (ग्रामपंचायत) Providing health services and facilities Implementing development schemes related to agriculture and animal husbandry Planting trees in and around the village and to protect the environment Maintaining public parks and playgrounds, etc. Implementing various government schemes Panch A gram panchayat consists of between 7 and 17 members, elected from the wards of the village, and they are called a "panch". People of the village select a panch, with one-third of seats reserved for female candidates. To establish a gram panchyat in a village, the population of the village should be at least 300 people of voting age. Number of members for gram panchyat: 600–1500 (population):7 members 1501–3000: 9 3001–4500: 11 4501–6000: 13 6001–7500: 15 7501–9000: 17 Sources of income Gram panchayat office at Chinawal, Maharashtra The main source of income of the gram panchayat is the property tax levied on buildings and open spaces within the village. Other sources of income include professional tax, taxes on pilgrimage, animal trade, grant received from the State Government in proportion of land revenue and the grants received from the District Councils of India (Zila Parishad). Gram sabhas Gram Sabha include all the adult citizens of the village. It is empowered to elect the Gram Panchayat. The Sabha can contribute to the number of decisions taken by the Panchayat and can modify weak decisions whenever they feel. The Panchayat can be established for a village having a population of 1,000–25,000. The several small villages having low population can be grouped under one Gram Sabha. The member count usually ranges from 7 to 17 depending on the strength of the village population. These form various Committees, viz. Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Public Works, Social Welfare and Health and sanitation in village Gram Panchayat. Meetings gram sabha has to conduct a meeting whenever needed but there is a prescribed minimum number of meetings per year, two rather than a prescribed maximum. The national government notifies the local organization which two dates have been selected for the minimum gram sabha meetings. The gram sabha meeting should be held on every 14 April and 3 October. Conduct of gram sabha twice yearly is a minimum, not maximum. Gram sabha can be convened as and when necessary and as many times as possible, depending on the need. In states like Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Punjab, Sikkim and Uttar Pradesh there are statutory provisions to hold the gram sabha two times a year, whereas in states like Assam, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Rajasthan the gram sabhas are held four times a year. Functions of Gram Panchayat Supply of water for domestic use Construction and repairs to public roads, drains, small irrigation bandharas Maintaining sanitation and public health Construction, repairing and maintaining public buildings, grazing lands, forest public wells and tanks in good condition Lighting on roads and public places Controlling fairs, bazaars (public market) bullets cart stands Controlling and maintaining village cremation ground and/or cemetery Taking part in Agricultural development Maintaining a library and opening elementary school Providing and maintaining a playground for children Construction and maintaining public latrines Watch and ward work Planting and preservation of trees on the sides of the public roads in the village Collection of taxes Providing recreational facilities through establishment of TV unit Vani (forest) scheme introduced Meaning Social stratification is a particular form of social inequality. All societies arrange their members in terms of superiority, inferiority and equality. Stratification is a process of interaction or differentiation whereby some people come to rank higher than others. In one word, when individuals and groups are ranked, according to some commonly accepted basis of valuation in a hierarchy of status levels based upon the inequality of social positions, social stratification occurs. Social stratification means division of society into different strata or layers. It involves a hierarchy of social groups. Members of a particular layer have a common identity. They have a similar life style. The Indian Caste system provides an example of stratification system. The society in which divisions of social classes exist is known as a stratified society. Modern stratification fundamentally differs from stratification of primitive societies. Social stratification involves two phenomena (i) differentiation of individuals or groups on the basis of possession of certain characteristics whereby some individuals or groups come to rank higher than others, (ii) the ranking of individuals according to some basis of evaluation. Sociologists are concerned not merely with the facts of social differences but also with their social evaluation. Definitions: Ogburn and Nimkoff: ‘The process by which individuals and groups are ranked in more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification” Lundberg: “A stratified society is one marked by inequality, by differences among people that are evaluated by them as being “lower” and “higher”. Gisbert: “Social stratification is the division of society into permanent groups of categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority and subordinations”. Origin of Stratification: Regarding the origin of stratification many views have been given. (i) According to Davis, social stratification has come into being due to the functional necessity of the social system. (ii) Professor Sorokin attributed social stratification mainly to inherited difference in environmental conditions. (iii) According to Karl Mrax, social factors are responsible for the emergence of different social strata, i.e. social stratification. (iv) Gumplowioz and other contended that the origin of social stratification is to be found in the conquest of one group by another. (v) According to Spengler, social stratification is founded upon scarcity which is created whenever society differentiates positive in terms of functions and powers. (vi) Racial differences accompanied by dissimilarity also leads to stratification. Types of Social Stratification: Social stratification is based upon a variety of principles. So we find different type of stratification. The major types of stratification are (i) Caste (ii) Class (iii) Estate (iv) Slavery (i) Caste is a hereditary endogamous social group in which a person’s rank and its accompanying rights and obligations are ascribed on the basis of his birth into a particular group. For example-Brahmins, Kshyatryas, Vaishyas and Sudra Caste. (ii) Class-Stratification on the basis of class is dominant in modern society. In this, a person’s position depends to a very great extent upon achievement and his ability to use to advantage the inborn characteristics and wealth that he may possess. (iii) Estate system of medieval Europe provides another system of stratification which gave much emphasis to birth as well as to wealth and possessions. Each estate had a state. (iv) Slavery had economic basis. In slavery, every slave had his master to whom he was subjected. The master’s power over the slave was unlimited. Characteristics of Social Stratification: On the basis of the analysis of the different definitions given by eminent scholars, social stratification may have the following characteristics. (a) Social stratification is universal: There is no society on this world which is free from stratification. Modern stratification differs from stratification of primitive societies. It is a worldwide phenomenon. According to Sorokin “all permanently organized groups are stratified.” (b) Stratification is social: It is true that biological qualities do not determine one’s superiority and inferiority. Factors like age, sex, intelligence as well as strength often contribute as the basis on which statues are distinguished. But one’s education, property, power, experience, character, personality etc. are found to be more important than biological qualities. Hence, stratification is social by nature. (c) It is ancient: Stratification system is very old. It was present even in the small wondering bonds. In almost all the ancient civilizations, the differences between the rich and poor, humble andpowerful existed. During the period of Plato and Kautilya even emphasis was given to political, social and economic inequalities. (d) It is in diverse forms: The forms of stratification is not uniform in all the societies. In the modern world class, caste and estate are the general forms of stratification. In India a special type of stratification in the form of caste is found. The ancient Aryas were divided into four varnas: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Sudras. The ancient Greeks were divided into freemen and slaves and the ancient Romans were divided into the particians and the plebians. So every society, past or present, big or small is characterized by diversed forms of social stratification. (e) Social stratification is Consequential: Social stratification has two important consequences one is “life chances” and the other one is “life style”. A class system not only affects the “life- chances” of the individuals but also their “life style”. The members of a class have similar social chances but the social chances vary in every society. It includes chances of survival and of good physical and mental health, opportunities for education, chances of obtaining justice, marital conflict, separation and divorce etc. Life style denotes a style of life which is distinctive of a particular social status. Lifestyles include such matters like the residential areas in every community which have gradations of prestige-ranking, mode of housing, means of recreation, the kinds of dress, the kinds of books, TV shows to which one is exposed and so on. Life-style may be viewed as a sub-culture in which one stratum differs from another within the frame work of a commonly shared over-all culture. Meaning of Socialisation: The newborn is merely an organism. Socialisation makes him responsive to the society. He is socially active. He becomes a ‘Purush’ and the culture that his group inculcates in him, humanises him, and makes him ‘Manusha’. The process indeed, is endless. The cultural pattern of his group, in the process gets incorporated in the personality of a child. It prepares him to fit in the group and to perform the social roles. It sets the infant on the line of social order and enables an adult to fit into the new group. It enables the man to adjust himself to the new social order. Socialisation stands for the development of the human brain, body, attitude, behaviour and so forth. Socialisation is known as the process of inducting the individual into the social world. The term socialisation refers to the process of interaction through which the growing individual learns the habits, attitudes, values and beliefs of the social group into which he has been born. From the point of view of society, socialisation is the way through which society transmits its culture from generation to generation and maintains itself. From the point of view of the individual, socialisation is the process by which the individual learns social behaviour, develops his ‘self. The process operates at two levels, one within the infant which is called the internalisation of objects around and the other from the outside. Socialisation may be viewed as the “internalisation of social norms. Social rules become internal to the individual, in the sense that they are self-imposed rather than imposed by means of external regulation and are thus part of individual’s own personality. The individual therefore feels an urge to conform. Secondly, it may be viewed as essential element of social interaction. In this case, individuals become socialised as they act in accordance with the expectations of others. The underlying process of socialisation is bound up with social interaction. Socialisation is a comprehensive process. According to Horton and Hunt, Socialisation is the process whereby one internalises the norms of his groups, so that a distinct ‘self emerges, unique to this individual. Through the process of socialisation, the individual becomes a social person and attains his personality. Green defined socialisation “as the process by which the child acquires a cultural content, along with selfhood and personality”. Definitions of Socialisation According to Lundberg, socialisation consists of the “complex processes of interaction through which the individual learns the habits, skills, beliefs and standard of judgement that are necessary for his effective participation in social groups and communities”. Peter Worsley explains socialisation “as the process of “transmission of culture, the process whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups”. H.M. Johnson defines socialisation as “learning that enables the learner to perform social roles”. He further says that it is a “process by which individuals acquire the already existing culture of groups they come into”. Socialisation is, thus, a process of cultural learning whereby a new person acquires necessary skills and education to play a regular part in a social system. The process is essentially the same in all societies, though institutional arrangements vary. The process continues throughout life as each new situation arises. Socialisation is the process of fitting individuals into particular forms of group life, transforming human organism into social being sand transmitting established cultural traditions. Features of Socialisation: Socialisation not only helps in the maintenance and preservation of social values and norms but it is the process through which values and norms are transmitted from one generation to another generation. 1. Inculcates basic discipline: Socialisation inculcates basic discipline. A person learns to control his impulses. He may show a disciplined behaviour to gain social approval. 2. Helps to control human behaviour: It helps to control human behaviour. An individual from birth to death undergoes training and his, behaviour is controlled by numerous ways. In order to maintain the social order, there are definite procedures or mechanism in society. These procedures become part of the man’s/life and man gets adjusted to the society. Through socialisation, society intends to control the behaviour of its-members unconsciously. 3. Socialisation is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of socialisation: Socialisation takes place rapidly if the agencies’ of socialisation are more unanimous intheir ideas and skills. When there is conflict between the ideas, examples and skills transmitted in home and those transmitted by school or peer, socialisation of the individual tends to be slower and ineffective. 4. Socialisation takes place formally and informally: Formal socialisation takes through direct instruction and education in schools and colleges. Family is, however, the primary and the most influential source of education. Children learn their language, customs, norms and values in the family. 5. Socialisation is continuous process: Socialisation is a life-long process. It does not cease when a child becomes an adult. As socialisation does not cease when a child becomes an adult, internalisation of culture continues from generation to generation. Society perpetuates itself through the internalisation of culture. Its members transmit culture to the next generation and society continues to exist. Types of Socialisation: 1. Primary Socialisation: Primary socialisation refers to socialisation of the infant in the primary or earliest years of his life. It is a process by which the infant learns language and cognitive skills, internalises norms and values. The infant learns the ways of a given grouping and is moulded into an effective social participant of that group. The norms of society become part of the personality of the individual. The child does not have a sense of wrong and right. By direct and indirect observation and experience, he gradually learns the norms relating to wrong and right things. The primary socialisation takes place in the family. 2. Secondary Socialisation: The process can be seen at work outside the immediate family, in the ‘peer group’. The growing child learns very important lessons in social conduct from his peers. He also learns lessons in the school. Hence, socialisation continues beyond and outside the family environment. Secondary socialisation generally refers to the social training received by the child in institutional or formal settings and continues throughout the rest of his life. 3. Adult Socialisation: In the adult socialisation, actors enter roles (for example, becoming an employee, a husband or wife) for which primary and secondary socialisation may not have prepared them fully. Adult socialisation teaches people to take on new duties. The aim of adult socialisation is to bring change in the views of the individual. Adult socialisation is more likely to change overt behaviour, whereas child socialisation moulds basic values. :4. Anticipatory Socialisation Anticipatory socialisation refers to a process by which men learn the culture of a group with the anticipation of joining that group. As a person learns the proper beliefs, values and norms of a status or group to which he aspires, he is learning how to act in his new role. 5. Re-socialisation: Re-Socialisation refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one’s life. Such re-socialisation takes place mostly when a social role is radically changed. It involves abandonment of one way of life for another which is not only different from the former but incompatible with it. For example, when a criminal is rehabilitated, he has to change his role radically. Agencies of Socialisation: 1. Family: The family plays an outstanding role in the socialisation process. In all societies other agencies besides the family contribute to socialisation such as educational institutions, the peer group etc. But family plays the most important role in the formation of personality. By the time other agencies contribute to this process family has already left an imprint on the personality of the child. The parents use both reward and punishment to imbibe what is socially required from a child. 2. Peer Group: Peer Group means a group in which the members share some common characteristics such as age or sex etc. It is made up of the contemporaries of the child, his associates in school, in playground and in street. The growing child learns some very important lessons from his peer group. Since members of the peer group are at the same stage of socialisation, they freely and spontaneously interact with each other. The members of peer groups have other sources of information about the culture and thus the acquisition of culture goes on. They view the world through the same eyes and share the same subjective attitudes. In order to be accepted by his peer group, the child must exhibit the characteristic attitudes, the likes and dislikes. 3. Religion: Religion play a very important role in socialisation. Religion instills the fear of hell in the individual so that he should refrain from bad and undesirable activities. Religion not only makes people religious but socialises them into the secular order. 4. Educational Institutions: Parents and peer groups are not the only agencies of the socialisation in modern societies. Every civilised society therefore has developed a set of formalised agencies of education (schools, colleges and universities) which have a great bearing on the socialisation process. It is in the educational institutions that the culture is formally transmitted and acquired in which the science and the art of one generation is passed on to the next. 5. Occupation: In the occupational world the individual finds himself with new shared interests and goals. He makes adjustments with the position he holds and also learns to make adjustment with other workers who may occupy equal or higher or lower position.----- Importance of Socialisation: The process of socialisation is important from the point of view of society as well as from the point of view of individual. Every society is faced with the necessity of making a responsible member out of each child born into it. The child must learn the expectations of the society so that his behaviour can be relied upon. He must acquire the group norms in order to take the behaviour of others into account. Socialisation means transmission of culture, the process by which men learn the rules and practices of social groups to which belongs. It is through it that a society maintain its social system, transmits its culture from generation to generation. From the point of view of the individual, socialisation is the process by which the individual learns social behaviour, develops his self. Socialisation plays a unique role in personality development of the individual. It is the process by which the new born individual, as he grows up, acquires the values of the group and is moulded into a social being. Without this no individual could become a person, for if the values, sentiments and ideas of culture are not joined to the capacities and needs of the human organism there could be no human mentality, no human personality. The child has no self. The self emerges through the process of socialisation. The self, the core of personality, develops out of the child’s interaction with others. In the socialisation process the individual learns the culture as well as skills, ranging from language to manual dexterity which will enable him to become a participating member of human society. Socialisation inculcates basic disciplines, ranging from toilet habits to method of science. In his early years, individual is also socialised with regard to sexual behaviour. Society is also concerned with imparting the basic goals, aspirations and values to which the child is expected to direct his behaviour for the rest of his life. He learnsthe levels to which he is expected to aspire. Socialisation teaches skills. Only by acquiring needed skills individual fit into a society. In simple societies, traditional practices are handed down from generation to generation and are usually learned by imitation and practice in the course of everyday life. Socialisation is indeed an intricate process in a complex society characterised by increasing specialisation and division of work. In these societies, inculcating the abstract skills of literacy through formal education is a central task of socialisation. Another element in socialisation is the acquisition of the appropriate social roles that the individual is expected to play. He knows role expectations, that is what behaviour and values are a part of the role he will perform. He must desire to practise such behaviour and pursue such ends. Role performance is very important in the process of socialisation. As males, females, husbands, wives, sons, daughters, parents, children, student’s teachers and so on, accepted social roles must be learned if the individual is to play a functional and predictable part in social interaction.--------------------------------------------------------------*