Transcript Ch. 2 Sociological Investigation

Ch. 2
Sociological Investigation
Why Is Sociological Research
Necessary?
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Sociologists obtain their knowledge
of human behaviour through research
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Results in a body of information that
helps us move beyond guesswork
and commonsense in understanding
society.
Ways of knowing the world….
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Personal: We discover for ourselves the things we
know.
Tradition: People hold to a belief because everyone
knows it to be true.
Authority: Experts tell us that something is true.
Religion: We accept the truths that our scriptures or
religious officials advocate.
Media: Accept reports as “true” even if we know
some sources better than others – media has bias
Science: We know what is true based on controlled,
systematic observation.
Science and sociological theory
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Science creates and supports theory: a
statement that provides an explanation of a
natural or social phenomenon based on welldocumented evidence.
A theory must include the following criteria:
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tested by experimentation and observation of the
natural world.
is falsifiable (i.e. experiments must exist that could
prove it false).
cannot be proven, only confirmed or disconfirmed.
subject to revision and change.
Three main types of research…
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Scientific sociology (structural functionalism)
Systematic observation of social behaviour using
empirical evidence
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Interpretive sociology (symbolic interaction)
Describing and interpreting social behaviour in depth
2.
Critical sociology (social conflict)
Finding and using strategies to promote social
change
Scientific Sociology
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Scientific explanations differ from other ways of
knowing because they enable scientists to
resolve differences in understanding the world.
More difficult in the social world.
Science uses an empirical approach to answer
questions through a systematic collection and
analysis of data
Sociologists use methods like surveys,
experiments etc. and employ quantitative
analysis to understand the world “scientifically”
Principles of Scientific Sociology
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Concept: a abstract mental construct that
represents part of the world in a simplified form
Variable: a concept whose values change from
case to case: a concept that can “vary” and be
measured
Measurement: a procedure for determining the
value of a variable in a specific case
Defining concepts and operationalizing a
variable:
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Specifying what one intends to measure in assigning a
value to a variable
Reliability: consistency in measurement
Validity: measuring what one intends to measure
Relationships among variables
Stated as hypotheses and theories
 Cause and effect
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A relationship in which change in one
variable causes change in another
Types of variables
Independent: the variable that causes
the change
 Dependent: the variable that changes (its
value depends upon the independent
variable)
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Correlation and causation
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Correlation
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A relationship in which two or more variables
change together
Spurious Correlation: An apparent but false
relationship between two (or more) variables caused
by some other variable – use “control” to investigate
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Conditions for causality
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Existence of a correlation or association
Independent variable precedes dependent
variable
Non-spurious
Limitations of scientific sociology
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The “ideal of objectivity”
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Can social scientists be “value-neutral”?
Max Weber said not possible but can aim to be value-free
through recognition of personal bias
Human behavior is too complex to predict
precisely any individual’s actions
The mere presence of the researcher might
affect the behavior being studied
Social patterns change
Sociologists are part of the world they study,
making value-free research difficult
Interpretive and critical sociology
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Collect qualitative data in the real world
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Reality is socially constructed
Can also be seen as “empirical”
Data are systematically analyzed and then
interpreted/questioned
Methods include interviewing, observation or
deconstruction
More subjective than scientific sociology but no
less valid
Critical sociology aims to correct inequality but
political overtones can create an agenda
Limitations in Sociological Research
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The Problem of Gender in Research:
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Androcentricity/Gynocentricity: Approaching a
topic from a male-only or female-only
perspective
Overgeneralization: Using data collected from
one sex and applying the findings to both
sexes
Gender blindness: The failure to consider the
impact of gender at all
Double standards: Using different standards to
judge males and females
Interference: a subject under study reacts to
the sex of the researcher
Other limitations and problems in research
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Problem of working with human subjects
Research motivated by ideology or blame
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“blame analysis”
Overgeneralization
Selective observation
Premature closure of inquiry
Halo effect: overall impression of a person
influences the observer's findings
Control: not same as in the natural sciences
Hawthorne effect (esp. in experiments)
Other cont.
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The HALO EFFECT
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Edward Thorndike
1874-1949
Influence of impressions
The HAWTHORNE EFFECT
Elton Mayo
 1880-1949
 change in behaviour caused
by awareness of being studied
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Overcoming Bias: “Bracketing”
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First, make a list of your characteristics:
1. your gender;
2. your age;
3. your ethnic or national identification;
4. your religion or philosophy of life;
5. your political party or orientation;
6. your favourite psychological theory.
Add four more characteristics: words or
phrases that are descriptive of you as an
individual.
Bracketing (cont.)
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1. List ways in which your characteristics
might bias you in your efforts at research
interviewing.
2. Then write how you might counteract
these biases.
3. And then write how these efforts to
counteract your biases might themselves
lead to other biases!
Replication and Triangulation
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Replication of research by other scientists
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Triangulation
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Creates greater reliability of results
Use multiple methods, researchers, data and/or
theories to create fuller body of sociological
knowledge
Increases validity
Triangulation seen as key to creating good,
valid and reliable knowledge of the world
around us
Summary (from Macionis and Gerber)
Dimensions of Sociological Research
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A. Style of Research
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B. Purpose or Focus of Research
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Basic: to add to existing body of knowledge
Applied: to solve a perceived societal problem
C. Time Frame
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Exploratory: to gain new knowledge
Descriptive: attempt to describe social reality
Explanatory: explain cause and effect relationships
Cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal studies
D. Data Collection Technique
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Quantitative (numbers)
Qualitative (words)
Quantitative and Qualitative Orientations
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Quantitative
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Meaningfully expressed by numbers
Provides counts and measures
Qualitative
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Meanings, concepts, and definitions
Assessed through words, images, and
description
Theory and Research Cycle
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A theory is a set of logically interrelated
statements that attempts to describe, explain,
and (occasionally) predict social phenomena
Research is the process of systematically
collecting information for the purpose of testing
an existing theory or generating a new one.
The theory and research cycle consists of
deductive and inductive approaches.
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deductive: from theory to research observations
inductive: from observations to theory creation
Inductive and Deductive
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Inductive logical thought
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Reasoning that transforms specific observations into
general theory
Induction “increases” from specific to general
Deductive logical thought
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Reasoning that transforms general theory into specific
hypotheses suitable for testing
Deduction “decreases” from general to specific
The Wheel of Research
Research Methods For Collecting Data
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Research methods are strategies or
techniques for systematically conducting
research
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Methods are chosen according to whom
we wish to study and what we wish to
learn
Quantitative research methods
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Surveys: polls in which researchers gather facts or
attempt to determine the relationship between facts.
Survey data are collected by using self-administered
questionnaires, personal interviews, and/or
telephone surveys. Respondents are persons who
provide data for analysis through interviews or
questionnaires.
Secondary analysis (i.e. a content or historical
analysis) of existing data, researchers use existing
material and analyze data that originally was
collected by others.
Experiments are carefully designed situations in
which the researcher studies the impact of certain
variables on subjects' attitudes or behaviour.
Qualitative Research Methods
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Field research: study of social life in its natural setting:
observe and interview people where they live, work, play.
Case study: an in-depth, multifaceted investigation of a
single event, person, or social grouping. Often involves
more than one method, such as participant observation,
unstructured or in-depth interviews, and life histories.
Unstructured interview: extended, open-ended
interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee.
Used in Field Research and Oral Histories.
Feminist Research Methods: Feminist researchers use
the same methods, but in a different way
 women-centred.
 provide explanations that will help women improve their
situation.
Multiple Methods
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Many sociologists use triangulation and
use of multiple approaches in a single
study.
Often both quantitative and qualitative
techniques used.
Research Ethics
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The study of people (human subjects) raises
vital questions about ethical concerns in
sociological research.
The Canadian Sociology and Anthropology
Association (CSAA) has a Code of Ethics that
sets forth certain basic standards sociologists
must follow in conducting research
SILLY VIDEO (computer generated) on
research ethics in sociology
Tri-Council Policy Statement:
Ethical Conduct for Research Involving
Humans
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The Research Ethics Framework:
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“Norms for the ethics of research
involving human subjects are developed
and refined within an ever-evolving
societal context, elements of which
include the need for research and the
research community, moral imperatives
and ethical principles, and the law.”
From http://www.pre.ethics.gc.ca/english/pdf/TCPS%20October%202005_E.pdf
Guiding Ethical Principles
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Respect for Human Dignity
Respect for Free and Informed Consent
Respect for Vulnerable Persons
Respect for Privacy and Confidentiality
Respect for Justice and Inclusiveness
Balancing Harms and Benefits
Minimizing Harm
Maximizing Benefit
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Select and define topic
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Review the literature
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Develop key questions to ask
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Assess requirements for study
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Consider ethical issues
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Select a research methodology
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Collect the data
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Interpret the findings
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State conclusions
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Publish the findings