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DIMENSIONS OF
SOCIAL COHESION
Wout Ultee
RADBOUD UNIVERSITY NIJMEGEN,
THE NETHERLANDS
EQUALSOC SUMMER SCHOOL
TRENTO, ITALY
04/09/06
– 09/09/06
DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL
STRATIFICATION IS A
LONGSTANDING TOPIC
DIMENSIONS OF SOCIAL
COHESION IS A NICE INVENTION
EARLY REQUEST: THE
DEFINITION AND
CONCEPTUALIZATION OF SOCIAL
COHESION
I DO NOT LIKE CONCEPTS AT ALL,
PROPOSITIONS ARE THE IMPORTANT THING
MAKING DEFINITIONS IS A WASTE OF TIME,
PROGRESS IS MADE BY STRETCHING
DEFINITIONS INTO NEW QUESTIONS
OF COURSE, CLASSES, STATUS GROUPS AND
POLITICAL PARTIES ARE PHENOMENA OF
THE DISTRIBUTION OF POWER WITHIN A
SOCIETY (Weber 1921),
BUT THE IMPORTANT THING IS THAT
POWER MAKES FOR PRIVILEGE (Lenski 1966)
ONCE MORE ABOUT CONCEPTS:
SURE, THERE ARE NO PROPOSITIONS
WITHOUT CONCEPTS
BUT CHARACTERISTIC FOR THEORETICAL
SOCIOLOGY UNTIL NOW ARE SYSTEMS OF
CONCEPTS WITHOUT PROPOSITIONS
THE BEST, OR RATHER WORST, EXAMPLE OF
THIS ARE PARSONS’ CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES
WHAT GOOD CONCEPTS DO, IS MAKE LONG
PROPOSITIONS SHORTER (SEE LATER,
DURKHEIM ON ANOMIE)
THE TERM COHESION IN THE NETHERLANDAS
DID NOT COME FROM POLITICS TO SOCIOLOGY
SOCIOLOGISTS INTRODUCED IT INTO THE
POLITICAL DEBATE IN THE 1980S
I WAS ONE OF THEM
I NEEDED THE TERM TO DESCRIBE WHAT WAS
HAPPENING TO THE SOCIAL FABRIC IN TIMES
OF VERY HIGH UNEMPLOYMENT IN THE
NETHERLANDS
THE UNEMPLOYED DID NOT REBEL, BUT THEY
BECAME ISOLATED FROM THE EMPLOYED AND
BEGAN TO REJECT CORE SOCIETAL VALUES
SOCIOLOGISTS STUDY SOCIETIES
COHESION, LIKE INEQUALITY, IS A
CHARACTERISTIC OF SOCIETIES SOCIOLOGISTS
SEEK TO EXPLAIN
COHESION IS A DISPOSITIONAL CONCEPT (LIKE
‘GLASS IS BREAKABLE’)
THAT IS WHY THE COHESION OF A SOCIETY MAY
BE DIFFICULT TO STUDY
IT IS A PHENOMENON WHICH COMES OUT UNDER
INFREQUENT CIRCUMSTANCES
THAT IS WHY I STUDIED THE FATE OF DUTCH
JEWS WHEN GERMANY OCCUPIED THE
NETHERLANDS:
DUTCH COHESION WAS ON TRIAL
LECTURES ABOUT CONCEPTUALIZATION MIX UP
QUESTIONS AND PROPOSITIONS
THE PROGRAMME FOR THIS MORNING:
THE STRUCTURE OF QUESTIONS
ABOUT SOCIETAL COHESION
AND A GENERAL THEORY
EXPLAINING VARIOUS
PHENOMENA INDICATIVE OF A
SOCIETY’S DEGREE OF
COHESION
THE STRUCTURE OF QUESTIONS ABOUT THE
INEQUALITIES BETWEEN THE INHABITANTS
OF A SOCIETY:
WHO GETS WHAT AND WHY?
OR:
HOW MUCH INEQUALITY
BETWEEN WHO AND WHO
IN WHAT RESPECT?
WHAT DOES THE STRUCTURE OF QUESTIONS
OF THIS SOCIOLOGIST LOOK LIKE?
THAT IS HOW THAT SOCIOLOGIST LOOKED WHEN HE
WAS RECUPERATING FROM A NERVOUS BREAKDOWN
IN ITALY AND HIS WIFE HAD TO PUT UP WITH HIM
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF
COHESION
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF
COHESION
WHY DO PEOPLE LIVE
TOGETHER PEACEFULLY?
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF
COHESION
WHY DO PEOPLE LIVE
TOGETHER PEACEFULLY,
WHY IS NOT THERE A WAR OF
ALL AGAINST ALL?
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF
COHESION
WHY DO PEOPLE LIVE
TOGETHER PEACEFULLY,
WHY IS NOT THERE A WAR OF
ALL AGAINST ALL?
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF
COHESION
WHY DO PEOPLE LIVE
TOGETHER PEACEFULLY,
WHY IS NOT THERE A WAR OF
ALL AGAINST ALL?
WHY DO PEOPLE LIVE
TOGETHER PEACEFULLY?
THE EMERGENCE OF THE PROBLEM OF
COHESION
WHY DO PEOPLE LIVE
TOGETHER PEACEFULLY,
WHY IS NOT THERE A WAR OF
ALL AGAINST ALL?
WHY DO PEOPLE LIVE
TOGETHER PEACEFULLY,
WHY IS SOCIETY NOT LIKE A
HEAP OF SAND?
THE YOUNG DURKHEIM HOLDING HIS MOTHER’S HAND
WHY DO PEOPLE LIVE
TOGETHER PEACEFULLY,
WHY IS SOCIETY NOT LIKE A
HEAP OF SAND?
WHAT KINDS OF TIES ARE
THERE BETWEEN THE
MEMBERS OF A SOCIETY, AND
HOW STRONG ARE THESE
TIES?
DURKHEIM, HIS DAUGHTER MARIE, HIS SON
ANDRÉ, HIS WIFE IN BORDEAUX AROUND 1905
DURKHEIM’S INTEGRATION HYPOTHESIS:
THE STRONGER THE
INTEGRATION OF A PERSON
INTO ANY OF A SOCIETY’S
INTERMEDIARY GROUPS,
THE LESS LIKELY IS THIS
PERSON TO COMMIT SUICIDE
THIS ONE PROPOSITION EXPLAINS SEVERAL
FINDINGS ABOUT SUICIDE
IN PROTESTANT COUNTRIES, THE SUICIDE RATE IS
HIGHER THAN IN CATHOLIC COUNTRIES, AND IN
THE GERMAN STATES AND SWISS CANTONS
PROTESTANTS ARE MORE LIKELY TO COMMIT
SUICIDE THAN CATHOLICS
THE STRONGER PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO A RELIGIOUS
GROUP, THE LOWER THEIR
CHANCES OF SUICIDE
CATHOLICS ARE A MORE STRONGLY
INTEGRATED GROUP THAN PROTESTANTS
_______________________________________________
IN PROTESTANT COUNTRIES, THE SUICIDE RATE IS
HIGHER THAN IN CATHOLIC COUNTRIES, AND IN
THE GERMAN STATES AND SWISS CANTONS
PROTESTANTS ARE MORE LIKELY TO COMMIT
SUICIDE THAN CATHOLICS
THE STRONGER PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO A RELIGIOUS
GROUP, THE LOWER THEIR
CHANCES OF SUICIDE
THE HIGHER THE PERCENT OF CATHOLICS IN A
MUNICIPALITY, THE MORE STRONGLY
INTEGRATED THE CATHOLICS AS A GROUP ARE
_______________________________________________
IN THE NETHERLANDS THE SUICIDE RATE FOR
CATHOLICS IS LOWER IN MUNICIPALITIES WITH A
HIGHER PERCENT OF CATHOLICS
VAN TUBERGEN, TE GROTENHUIS AND ULTEE,
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY 2005
IN ALL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, ALSO AFTER
CONTROLLING FOR AGE, THE SUICIDE RATE IS
HIGHER FOR SINGLE PERSONS THAN FOR
MARRIED PERSONS
THE STRONGER PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO A FAMILY
GROUP, THE LOWER THEIR
CHANCES OF SUICIDE
MARRIED PERSONS ARE MORE STRONGLY
INTEGATED INTO FAMILY GROUPS THAN SINGLE
PERSONS
_______________________________________________
IN ALL EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, ALSO AFTER
CONTROLLING FOR AGE, THE SUICIDE RATE IS
HIGHER FOR SINGLE PERSONS THAN FOR
MARRIED PERSONS
THE STRONGER PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO A FAMILY
GROUP, THE LOWER THEIR
CHANCES OF SUICIDE
MARRIED WOMEN WITH MORE CHILDREN ARE
ARE MORE STRONGLY INTEGATED INTO FAMILY
GROUPS MARIED WOMEN WITH LESS CHILDREN
_______________________________________________
IN NORWAY FOR MARRIED WOMEN BELOW THE
AGE OF 40 IN 1970, WITH EVERY ADDITIONAL
CHILD, THE LATER SUICIDE RATE WAS LOWER
HOYER AND LUND, ARCHIVES OF GENERAL PSYCHIATRY 1993
THAT WAS DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF
EGOISTIC OR INDIVIDUALISTIC SUICIDE
NOW HIS THEORY OF ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE
THE MORE STRONGLY PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO ANY GROUP WHATSOEVER,
THE LESS LIKELY THEY COMMIT SUICIDE
THE MORE STRONGLY PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO ANY GROUP WHATSOEVER,
THE MORE LIKELY THEY ARE TO LIVE UP TO
ITS NORM FORBIDDING SUICIDE
THE MORE STRONGLY PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO ANY GROUP WHATSOEVER,
THE LESS LIKELY THEY COMMIT SUICIDE
THE MORE STRONGLY PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO ANY GROUP WHATSOEVER,
THE MORE LIKELY THEY ARE TO LIVE UP TO
THIS GROUP’S NORM ABOUT SUICIDE
MOST GROUPS FORBID SUICIDE, BUT IN THE
ARMY SUICIDE IS ACCEPTED UNDER CERTAIN
CONDITIONS
_______________________________________________
THE MORE STRONGLY PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO ANY GROUP WHATSOEVER,
THE MORE LIKELY THEY ARE TO LIVE UP TO
ITS NORM FORBIDDING SUICIDE
THE MORE STRONGLY PERSONS ARE
INTEGRATED INTO ANY GROUP WHATSOEVER,
THE MORE LIKELY THEY ARE TO LIVE UP TO
THIS GROUP’S NORM ABOUT SUICIDE
MOST GROUPS FORBID SUICIDE, BUT IN THE
ARMY SUICIDE IS ACCEPTED UNDER CERTAIN
CONDITIONS
_______________________________________________
IN THE AUSTRIAN ARMY OFFICERS ARE MORE
LIKELY TO COMMIT SUICIDE THAN PETTY
OFFICERS, AND THE LATTER MORE LIKELY
THAN ENLISTED SOLDIERS
HOW ABOUT DURKHEIM’S CONCEPT OF
ANOMIE?
OR RATHER HOW IS HIS THEORY OF ANOMIC
SUICIDE RELATED TO HIS PROPOSITIONS OF
INDIVIDUALISTIC AND ALTRUISITIC SUICIDE?
FOR DURKHEIM A FREE MARKET SOCIETY IS A
SOCIETY WITHOUT NORMS THAT ATTUNE THE
MATERIAL GOALS OF PERSONS TO THE MEANS
AVAILABLE TO THEM
IN A SOCIETY WITHOUT NORMS
ADJUSTING THE GOALS OF PERSONS TO
THEIR MEANS, THE PERSONS WHOSE
GOALS SURPASS MOST THEIR MEANNS
ARE MOST LIKELY TO COMMIT SUICIDE
IN FRANCE DURING THE 19TH CENTURY,
FREE MARKETS (ECONOMIC
DEREGULATION) MORE AND MORE
PENETRATED ECONOMIC LIFE, MAKING
GOALS SURPASS MEANS
__________________________________________
IN FRANCE DURING THE 19TH CENTURY
THE SUICIDE RATE ROSE
NOTE THAT THE TERM ANOMIE IS
INTRODUCED TO MAKE A LONG SENTENCE
SHORTER: A SOCIETY WITHOUT NORMS
ADJUSTING THE GOALS OF PERSONS TO
THEIR MEANS IS CALLED ANOMIC
DURKHEIM IS DEAD,
BUT IS DURKHEIM’S THEORY DEAD?
NOW WE MOVE FROM SUICIDE AS
AN INDICATION OF LIMITED
SOCIETAL COHESION,
TO PETTY CRIMES BY JUVENILES
AS AN INDICATION OF LIMITED
SOCIETAL COHESION.
IT IS EASY TO OBTAIN A THEORY
EXPLAINING THAT PHENOMENON.
JUST GENERALIZE DURKHEIM’S
MOST GENERAL PROPOSITION.
THE MORE STRONGLY A PERSON
IS INTEGRATED INTO ANY
WHATSOEVER OF A SOCIETY’S
GROUPS, THE MORE LIKELY IS
THAT PERSON TO LIVE UP TO
EVERY OF THAT GROUP’S NORMS
AND SOME OF THESE NORMS FORBID SHOPLIFTING
AND DESTROYING THE GLASS AT BUS STOPS
WE HAVE ARRIVED AT HIRSCHI’S
ATTACHMENT THEORY OR SOCIAL
CONTROL THEORY
HIRSCHI, CAUSES OF DELINQUENCY, 1969
SORRY, NO PICTURE
HIRSCHI DOES NOT REFER TO DURKHEIM
HIRSCHI IS A PUPIL OF LAZARSFELD
THREE INTERMEDIARY GROUPS
A STUDENT’S PARENTS
A STUDENT’S TEACHERS
A STUDENT’S FRIENDS
FINDINGS:
THE MORE STUDENTS DISCUSS THEIR
DAILY LIFE WITH THEIR PARENTS, THEY
LESS LIKELY THEY HAVE COMMITTED
PETTY CRIMES
THE BETTER STUDENTS LIKE THEIR
TEACHERS, THET LESS LIKELY THEY HAVE
COMMITTED PETTY CRIMES
HIRSCHI PREDICTED BUT DID NOT FIND:
THE MORE STUDENTS HANG OUT WITH
THEIR FRIENDS, THE LESS LIKELY THEY
HAVE COMMITTED PETTY CRIMES
WAS HIRSCHI’S SOCIAL CONTROL
THEORY REFUTED?
NO, THERE WAS A MISTAKE IN HIS
ADDITIONAL ASSUMPTIONS.
THE FRIENDS STUDENTS HANG OUT
WITH, OFTEN ARE ‘GOOD’ FRIENDS,
BUT SOMETIMES THEY ARE ‘BAD’
FRIENDS
THE MORE STUDENTS HANG OUT
WITH ‘BAD’ FRIENDS, THEY MORE
LIKELY THEY ARE TO COMMIT PETTY
CRIMES
SUICIDE AND PETTY CRIME DO NOT
HAVE MUCH TO DO WITH INEQUALITY
HOW ABOUT DERIVING FROM
DURKHEIM’S GENERAL INTEGRATION
HYPOTHESIS,
SPECIFIC HYPOTHESES ABOUT
PHENOMENA OFTEN ASSOCIATED WTH
INEQUALITY AND ITS CONSEQUENCES?
THERE ARE CLASSES IN A SOCIETY, AND
VOTING IS THE PEACEFUL EXPRESSION
OF THE CLASS STRUGGLE
THE THEORY OF OPINION CLIMATE AND VOTING
ADVANCED IN 1944 BY
LAZARSFELD, BERELSON AND GAUDET
LAZARSFELD DOES NOT REFER TO DURKHEIM
THE MORE STRONGLY A PERSON IS
INTEGRATED INTO A GROUP, THE MORE
LIKELY THIS PERSON IS TO LIVE UP TO ITS
NORM ABOUT THE PARTY TO VOTE FOR
THE NORM AMONG MANUAL WORKERS IN THE
USA IS TO VOTE FOR THE DEMOCRATS
____________________________________________
MANUAL WORKERS WHOSE FATHER WAS A
MANUAL WORKER TOO, ARE MORE LIKELY TO
VOTE FOR THE DEMOCRATS,
AND SO ARE MANUAL WORKERS WHO ARE A
MEMBER OF A LABOUR UNION
THE MORE STRONGLY A PERSON IS
INTEGRATED INTO A GROUP, THE MORE
LIKELY THIS PERSON IS TO LIVE UP TO ITS
NORM ABOUT THE PARTY TO VOTE FOR
THE NORM AMONG PROTESTANTS IS TO VOTE
FOR THE REPUBLICANS, AMONG CATHOLICS
FOR THE DEMOCRATS
____________________________________________
PROTESTANTS WHO GO TO CHURCH MORE
OFTEN, ARE MORE LIKELY TO VOTE FOR THE
REPUBLICANS, CATHOLICS WHO GO TO
CHURCH MORE OFTEN FOR THE DEMOCRATS
SO, THE STRONGER THE
INTEGRATION OF PERSONS INTO A
SOCIETY’S INTERMEDIARY GROUPS,
THE STRONGER THE POLITICAL
CLEAVAGES OR DIVISIONS WITHIN
THAT SOCIETY
HOW WOULD A PROTESTANT MANUAL
WORKER VOTE?
ACCORDING TO THE FINDINGS OF
LAZARSFELD CS THIS PERSON IS
EXPOSED TO CROSS PRESSURES
AND CROSS PRESSURES MAKE FOR
INDECISION AND DISINTEREST IN
POLITICS
CROSS PRESSURED PEOPLE ARE MORE
LIKELY TO STAY AT HOME IN ELECTIONS
BUTLER AND STOKES FOR BRITAIN:
MANUAL WORKERS IN A DISTRICT WITH A
HIGHER PERCENT OF MANUAL WORKERS,
ARE MORE LIKELY TO VOTE LABOUR THAN
MANUAL WORKES IN A DISTRICT WITH A
LOWER PERCENT OF MANUAL WORKERS
HEATH AND DE GRAAF FOR BRITAIN:
A WOMAN WITH A MANUAL JOB IS MORE
LIKELY TO VOTE LABOUR IF HER HUSBAND
HAS A MANUAL JOB TOO
IN EVERY SOCIETY THERE ARE NORMS
ABOUT LEGITIMATE INCOME DIFFERENCES
IN A COUNTRY LIKE THE NETHERLANDS THE
NORM IS THAT THE HIGHEST PAID
EMPLOYEE SHOULD NOT EARN MORE THAN
FIVE TIMES THE INCOME OF THE LOWEST
PAID EMPLOYEE
UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES WILL THE
ACTUAL INCOME DISTRIBUTION DEVIATE
LESS FROM THIS NORM?
THE THESIS OF A CORPORATIST STATE
THE HIGHER THE UNIONIZATION AMONG EMPLOYEES,
THE MORE EMPLOYERS BELONG TO EMPLOYER’S
ORGANIZATIONS,
AND THE MORE UNIONS AND EMPLOYER’S
ORGANIZATIONS MEET IN COUNCILS ADVICING THE
GOVERNMENT ABOUT SOCIO-ECONOMIC POLICIES,
THE SMALLER THE DISCREPANCY BETWEEN A
COUNTRY’S ACTUAL INCOME DISTRIBUTION AND THE
NORM IN THIS COUNTRY ABOUT LEGITMATE INCOME
DIFFERENCES
AN UPDATED
STRUCTURE FOR
COHESION QUESTIONS
COHESION
VIOLENCE
WHO
COMMITS
CRIMES?
WHO IS
A CRIME
VICTIM?
TIES
WHO
KILLS
WHO?
WHO
ROBS
WHO?
WHO-WHO: ALL THE DIMENSIONS OF STRATIFICATION
COHESION
VIOLENCE
WHO
MARRIES,
STAYS
SINGLE?
WHO
MARRIES
WHO?
TIES
WHO
SPORTS
IN CLUBS,
WHO
GOES
BOWLING
ALONE?
WHO
SPORTS
IN CLUBS
WITH
WHO?
WHO-WHO: ALL THE DIMENSIONS OF STRATIFICATION
THE PARADOX OF
INTEGRATION AND COHESION
EVEN IF EVERY MEMBER OF A
SOCIETY HAS STRONG TIES
WITH A LOT OF OTHER
MEMBERS, THE COHESION OF
SOCIETY STILL CAN BE WEAK
THIS IS THE CASE IF PERSONS
HAVE TIES WITH PERSONS OF
THEIR OWN KIND
THE TWO NON-IDENTICAL QUESTIONS OF
SOLIDARITY THROUGH TAXES AND
BENEFITS IN WELFARE STATES:
HOW HIGH IS THE PERCENT THE
AVERAGE WORKING PERSON PAYS
OF HER OR HIS INCOME IN TAXES
FOR UNEMPLOYMENT BENEFITS,
DISABILITY BENEFITS AND OLD AGE
BENEFITS?
HOW HIGH ARE UNEMPLOYMENT
BENEFITS, DISABILITY BENEFITS
AND OLD AGE BENEFITS AS A
PERCENT OF THE INCOME OF THE
AVERAGE WORKING PERSON?
FROM THE PHENOMENON
OF INEQUALITY TO
QUESTIONS OF COHESION
OR
FROM QUESTIONS OF
COHESION TO QUESTIONS
OF INEQUALITY?
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WOUT ULTEE
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY
RADBOUD UNIVERSITY
NIJMEGEN, NETHERLLANDS
[email protected]