Transcript Chapter 3
Chapter 3 Researching the Social World Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. The Scientific Method • Sociologists practice empiricism, which means they gather information using their senses. • The scientific method is a way to find answers to questions about the world. • The scientific method is a systematic search for a thorough understanding of the world. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. The Scientific Method • The scientific method uses steps. • Uncover questions in need of answers. • Review the relevant literature. • Develop hypotheses (tentative statements about the relationship between two or more variables). • Choose a research method. • Collect data. • Analyze the data. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. The Development of Scientific Knowledge • The scientific method implies that science develops gradually and cumulatively. • Confidence in findings grows as they are confirmed by additional research. • All sciences are built on such facts. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. The Development of Scientific Knowledge • Thomas Kuhn (1962) proposed a different model of scientific development in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. • A paradigm (general model) is accepted by most practitioners in a field. • However, scientific revolutions occur when one paradigm replaces another after a scientific breakthrough. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Sociological Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Research • Qualitative Research • A scientific method that does not require statistical methods for collecting and reporting data • Observation and open-ended questions are two examples. • Capture descriptive information. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Sociological Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Research • Quantitative Research • Involves the analysis of numerical data • Surveys and experiments are two examples. • Can help us describe and understand social realities Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Sociological Research: Observational Research • Involves systematic watching, listening to, and recording what takes place in a natural setting over time • The most common observational methods used by sociologists are participant and nonparticipant. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Sociological Research: Observational Research • Dimensions to any type of observation in sociology • Degree to which those being observed are aware that they are being observed • Degree to which the presence of the observer may affect those being observed • Degree to which the process is structured Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Observational Research • Participant and nonparticipant observation • In participant observation the researcher plays a role in the group or setting being observed. • In nonparticipant observation the researcher plays little or no role in what is being observed. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Observational Research • Ethnography • The creation of an account of what a group of people do and the way they live • Entails much more intensive and lengthy periods of observation Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Sociological Research: Interviews • Information is sought from participants who are asked a series of questions. • Types of interviews: • Prestructured • Unstructured Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Sociological Research: Surveys • Questionnaires are self-administered, written sets of questions. • Types of surveys • Descriptive • Explanatory • Sampling • Random • Stratified • Convenience Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Sociological Research: Experiments • Involves the manipulation of one or more characteristics of an independent variable in order to examine the effect of that manipulation • Types of experiments • Laboratory • Natural • Field Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Secondary Data Analysis • Historical-Comparative Analysis • Goal is to contrast how different historical events and conditions in various societies led to different societal outcomes • Content Analysis • The systematic and objective analysis of the content of cultural artifacts Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Issues in Social Research: Reliability and Validity • Reliability • Involves the degree to which a given measure produces the same results time after time • Concern is with consistency • Validity • Involves whether a researcher is measuring what he/she claims to be • Concern is with accuracy Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Issues in Social Research: Research Ethics • Ethics is concerned with issues of right and wrong, the choices that people make, and how they justify them. • Research ethics is a balance of potential knowledge (the goal is to increase knowledge) and potential harm (the goal is to minimize or eliminate harm). Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Issues in Social Research: Research Ethics • Physical and Psychological Harm • Physical harm can be an unintended consequence of sociological research. • Psychological harm can be caused merely by asking people about sensitive issues. • Illegal Acts • A researcher might witness or even become entangled in illegal acts during the course of his/her research. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Issues in Social Research: Research Ethics • Violation of Trust • Possibility of inadvertently divulging the identity of respondents even though they were promised anonymity or confidentiality • Informed Consent and IRBs • Institutional review boards are designed to deal with issues of deception in social research and potential harm. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc. Issues in Social Research: Objectivity or Value-Free Sociology • Have researchers been, or can they be, objective? • Many argue that value-laden research jeopardizes sociology as it could destroy its credibility. • Others argue that it is appropriate for researchers to be guided by their values or the values that predominate their society. Copyright 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc.