Transcript Sociology - Warren County Schools

Sociology
Definition: The scientific study of
society and social behavior.
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The Sociological Perspective

Looks beyond specific events and individuals to
identify social patterns and explain them.
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Example: Terrorism
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Terrorism: the attempt to utilize the fear or
terror created by violence against a civilian
population to achieve political ends.
Two types of terrorism:
1. Revolutionary Terrorism: intended to upset the
status quo and bring change.
 2. State or repressive Terrorism: done by the state or
the power structure to preserve the status quo.
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Patterns associated with Middle East
revolutionary terrorism
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Age: younger more than older people
Sex: males more than females
Social class: social marginals are more likely
Religious ethnicity/ideology: radicals more than
moderates
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Seeing the general in the particular
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Focus on how the behavior of particular
individuals may reflect larger social patterns.
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Basic insight: we are largely the products of the
groups we belong to.
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Seeing the strange in the familiar
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The sociological perspective involves detaching
oneself from familiar ways of thinking in order
to gain new insights.
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Ethnocentrism v. Cultural Relativism
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Ethnocentrism: the tendency to judge other
cultures from the values of one’s own culture.
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Cultural relativism: awareness that values differ
across societies.
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Putting individuals in context of
social forces: the case of suicide
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19th Century View of Suicide
Due to psychological pathology. They have “sick
minds.”
 An isolated act of the deranged individual.
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Emile Durkheim: suicide occurs in context of
social forces too, not just psychological
“pathologies.”
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Emile Durkheim’s Suicide Study
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(1897)
Research method: secondary data analysis of
suicide records across Central Europe.
Findings: Some categories of people had higher
suicide rates
Males
 Protestants
 The wealthy
 Unmarried people
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What do these categories of people
have in common?
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What do these categories of people
have in common?

They all have lower levels of social integration.
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They are less socially bonded to others. They have
more autonomy or freedom, but they are less tied to
others.
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Durkheim
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Two social forces are critical to understanding societal
suicide rates:
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1. Level of social integration, or social solidarity. How
integrated are people to societal norms and values, to their
families, to their jobs, etc? How high are levels of solidarity?
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2. Level of social regulation. This is an issue of how
compelling or regulatory the societal norms, values and
institutions are for members of society. Example: a very
authoritarian institution is over-regulatory while a very lenient
institution is under-regulatory.
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Four types of Suicide (Durkheim)
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1. Anomic Suicide (societal confusion or anomie)
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Not enough regulation. Lots of individualism.
Too much social change.
Due to confusion over societal norms and values and a low degree of
regulation of individual behaviors. This person often senses that
society is breaking down. Rapid social changes may cause the person
to feel rootless, yet there are few constraints that keep them from
destructive behaviors. This is associated with Western cultures.
2. Altruistic Suicide (honor bound)
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Too much integration.
Not enough individualism.
Due to excessively high levels of social solidarity, the suicide is
“encouraged” by societal norms as a matter of honor. This is
associated mostly with traditional conservative cultures.
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Four types of Suicide (Durkheim)
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3. Egoistic Suicide (individualistic)
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Not enough integration.
Too much individualism.
Due to low levels of integration, this is related to high levels of
individualism in which people may not sense their ties to societal
institutions, societal norms, or to other people. The individual senses
that life is meaningless. This is more common in Western cultures.
4. Fatalistic Suicide (oppression)
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Too much regulation. Not enough individualism.
Not enough social change.
Due to high levels of regulation that force obedience to the system –
even if it is against one’s will. This person senses they are trapped by
an oppressive social system and there is no way out. This is common
in total institutions that are authoritarian (slavery, prisons, military).
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Durkheim
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The needs of society must be balanced with the
needs of the individual.
Western cultures were undergoing rapid social
change due to industrialization and changing
values.
This brought increases in anomie and individualism.
 Anomic and Egoistic suicide rates were increasing in
Europe.
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Note the negative correlation that Durkheim observed:
decreased levels of social integration and regulation are
associated with increased levels of anomic and egoistic
suicide.
U.S. Suicide Rate by gender (1997)
Males
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18.7 per 100,000 people
Females
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4.4 per 100,000 people
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“The social does not ‘influence’ the private;
it dwells within it” … Russell Jacoby (1982)
The social world is the breeding ground of
our internal psychological states.
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Sociology and Everyday Life
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Social marginality: the state of being singled out
as an outsider and excluded from social activity.
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Minority group: people who have been singled out and
marginalized, typically by race, sex, social class, age,
religion, etc.
The greater the marginality, the more likely the
person or group is aware of how social patterns
affect their lives.
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Importance of a global perspective
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Currently, about 80% of the world’s wealth goes to less
than 20% of the world’s population.
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The globe is stratified into three categories:
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1. High income countries.
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2. Middle income countries.
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Highly industrialized. About 18% of the world’s population.
Moderately industrialized. About 54% of the population.
3. Low income countries.
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Not yet industrialized, lots of poverty. About 27% of the population.
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Importance of a global perspective

Macionis – 4 insights related to global issues:
1. Where we live on the globe shapes our lives.
 2. Societies everywhere are increasingly interconnected.
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When powerful nations impose themselves upon weaker
nations, they are likely to cause conflicts.
 Global stratification encourages global conflict and terrorism.
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3. Many problems Americans face are far more serious
elsewhere.
 4. Thinking globally is a good way to learn about
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ourselves.
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The Origins of Sociology
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The rise of science (defined): the accumulation
of knowledge through rational systematic
procedures.
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
Founder of the term “sociology”
 Scientist who applied a scientific approach to the
study of society.
 Positivist: believed objective truths can be uncovered
via the scientific method. Total objectivity was
possible.
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Three key historical changes
 1.
Industrial revolution.
 2. Urbanization.
 3. Values/political revolution.
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1. Industrial Revolution
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Before industrialization the economy was mainly
agrarian, or farming-based. For most people, life
centered on small-town rural life.
The family was the central institution of life.
 There were few distinctions between work and
family.
 Change was slow, tradition was important,
community and family responsibilities were the
dominant concern.
 Farms were relatively self-sufficient.
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Industrial Revolution, con’t.
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Industrial revolution began in England 350 years ago.
Scientific advances spurred technological innovations,
bringing constant and rapid changes to social life.
These technologies and factories increased productivity
and living standards for many.
People left their farms to work in these factories.
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Work and family became differentiated institutions, with
different functions. This process is called institutional
differentiation.
The factories were increasingly large and rationalized
(guided by formal rules, logical criteria, systematic).
Guided by the values of industrial capitalism: to maximize the
private profits of the owner.
 Conditions were very harsh for workers.
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Industrialization, con’t
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A new way of life was emerging
Standard of living increased for most due to higher
productivity. A middle class was emerging.
 Rapid changes brought “progress” – a positive
orientation to the future as bright thanks to new
technologies- but were destabilizing.
 Small communities declined, along with traditional
ways of life and traditional values.
 Mobility increased, with family size decreasing and
most moving toward a city.
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2. Urbanization
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Mass urbanization was made possible by new
technologies.
Factories offered wages, driving people off the
farm and its increasingly obsolete way of life.
Property became privatized, forcing migration.
Industrial urban life brought stimulation but it
also brought increases in crime, pollution,
homelessness, alienation, slums, overpopulation.
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Urban problems needed solutions; hence,
sociologists emerged to address these issues.
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3. Political/values changes
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Agrarian societies in Europe tended to be
monarchies.
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The king was all-powerful.
He claimed divine nobility.
 There was no separation of church and state.
 He demanded loyalty and obedience.
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The king owned all the land, forcing the masses to
be serfs or peasants.
 The king and the aristocracy promoted a caste
system of rigid stratification.
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People were ascribed their wealth and privileges.
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Political/values changes, con’t
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Rise in individualism, a radical new value.
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Individualism: a sense of personal autonomy or
personal freedom.
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Political effect: increased push for liberty and civil rights.
Other revolutionary political/values changes:
From monarchy toward democracy (with separation of
church and state)
 From slavery (indentured servitude) toward freedom
 From rigid status hierarchy toward equality
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“all men are created equal” – a statement directed at the king.
From illiterate toward literate (education)
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Modernity: social patterns resulting from
industrialization, urbanization, and other
recent historical changes. Features include:
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1. Decline in small communities.
2. Expansion of individualism.
3. Increased diversity.
4. Orientation to the future (progress).
5. Increased rationalization.
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Were these rapid changes “good” or “bad” for
society? Theorists disagree.
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Auguste Comte: rapid social changes threaten the
social order and are “bad” for society.
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Karl Marx (1818-1883): rapid or revolutionary
social changes are “good” if they bring about
equality.
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The old monarchies created social conflicts between the
“haves” and the “have-nots” – they promoted
oppression.
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Sociological Theory
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Three basic sociological theories or paradigms:
1. Structural-functionalism.
 2. Social conflict paradigm.
 3. Symbolic interactionism.
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1. Structural-functionalism
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This model views society as a complex system whose
parts “function” together to promote stability.
Key features of structural functionalism:
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1. Social structure: society consists of various components
or structures: stable patterns of social life, including norms,
values, institutions, etc.
2. All structures of society have social functions – they have
purposes and consequences for the operation of the whole
society.
3. Society and its structures are held together by shared
norms and values.
4. The structures or components of society are interrelated
and interdependent, such that a change in one structure
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produces effects on other components.
Structural funcionalism, con’t
Noted functionalists: Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert
Spencer, Robert Merton.
 Herbert Spencer (English/American, 1820-1903); an early
structural-functionalist.
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Applied a biological analogy to the study of society: he likened society to an
organism consisting of organs, tissue, muscles.
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Each “organ” is a structure with specific functions.
Each “organ” is interrelated with other components.
If a key “organ” stops functioning properly, the organism may die.
Example: The family is one of many interrelated institutions of society
and has several key functions, like reproduction and primary socialization.
A “breakdown” in the family threatens the survivability of society itself
and produces effects on other institutions, which may adjust to try to
compensate for this family “breakdown.”
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Structural-functionalism, con’t
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Spencer and other early functionalists tended to assume
that if a structure existed, it must have functions for the
survivability of society – it must be necessary.
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But was slavery a necessary institution? Is racism a necessary
core value?
Criticism led to modifications in the theory. Modern
functionalists examine all structures for their functions
(helpful or stabilizing effects) as well as their
dysfunctions (harmful or destabilizing effects).
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Structural functionalism, con’t
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Robert Merton (American, 1968) added new insights
toward functionalism. He argued that any component
of society can have many functions, some of which are
hidden.
1. Manifest functions: any consequences that are
intended and recognized as helpful to society.
2. Latent functions: any consequences that are
unintended or unrecognized but which are nevertheless
helpful to society.
3. Dysfunctions: any consequences which are
undesirable and harmful to society.
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Critique of functionalism
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As a macro theory, it tends to ignore micro social
processes.
Its emphasis on social stability and the survivability of
the social order tends to bias it against forces of
change/instability as “bad” forces. This may not always
be true, as the American Revolution itself was born out
of the force of change.
It assumes society is held together by shared norms and
values – by consensus - but to what extent are values
really shared by all of us?
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2. Conflict theory
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View of society: a complex system in which different
groups, with different levels of power, compete over scarce
resources.
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1. Society has valuable resources, like money, jobs, etc.
2. These resources are not equally distributed.
3. This creates tension and conflict over access to resources.
4. The powerful (elites) tend to use their power to hold on to the
best resources, and this may involve oppressing others and/or
persuading others to accept the dominant ideology that justifies
the status quo and its “pecking orders.”
5. Inequality breeds social conflict, because not everyone accepts
the dominant ideology of elites.
6. Conflict may be good for society if the outcome reduces
inequality and creates a more fair and just society.
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Conflict theory, con’t
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Heavily influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx (German,
1818-1883).
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An advocate of economic equality as a means toward social
utopia in an age of early industrial capitalism and concentration
of wealth.
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Marx believed capitalism created new conditions for oppression of the
many by the few – a virtual secular monarchy was emerging that
threatened freedom.
Marx advocated a workers’ revolution in capitalist factories to bring about
an egalitarian system of democratic socialism.
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Capitalist factories were totalitarian and oppressive to the masses as long as
they operated under private ownership.
Modern conflict theorists are interested in any form of
oppression, such as economic, racial, sexual, etc.
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Critique of Conflict Theory
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As a macro theory, it tends to ignore micro social
processes.
Whereas functionalists are often biased against social
change, conflict theorists are often biased in favor of
social change, as long as such change is seen to bring
about more equality.
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It ignores the downside of rapid social changes.
It assumes that egalitarianism is the best way to go, but is it
always?
It tends to assume that there is not much real
consensus in society, which may or may not be true.
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3. Symbolic Interactionism
This model examines how people construct
subjective reality to pattern their everyday social
interaction.
 1. Focuses on micro-level social interaction.
 2. Focuses on the process of ordinary everyday
social interaction.
 3. Everyday social interaction is made possible
through shared symbols and meanings, such as
speaking a common language.
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Interactionism, con’t

4. We respond to each other on the basis of how we
interpret each other, not necessarily who we really are.
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Subjective reality (what we perceive to be true), not
necessarily objective reality (what is true independent of our
perceptions), is crucial to understanding behavior.
W. I. Thomas theorum: a situation defined as real becomes real in
its consequences.
5. Subjective reality is negotiated and learned via social
interaction.
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Interactionism, con’t
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Max Weber (German, 1864-1920) greatly influenced the
emergence of this model.
Weber emphasized the importance of verstehen: the
importance of empathy or understanding the subjective
reality of others in order to understand their behavior.
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What meanings do people attach to their actions and to social
interaction? Where did they learn these meanings? How close
to objective reality are these subjective realities? How takenfor-granted are these subjective realities?
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Critique of Interactionism
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A common criticism is that their micro level
approach leads to ignoring the macro forces that
influence our lives.
Good for a social-psychological approach to the
study of society.
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Example of model application:
Analysis of Education
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Functionalism

The education system is one of the structural
components of society that ensures a stable society.
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This system is interdependent with other institutions,
particularly work and family.
Functionalists adopt a macro analysis of education.
 What are the manifest functions of edu. system?
 What are the latent functions of the edu. system?
 What are some dysfunctions of the edu. system?
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Example of model application:
Analysis of Education
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Conflict Theory
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This model adopts a critical perspective by examining conflicts
within the education system, especially as they relate to the power
structure and to industrial capitalism. It adopts a macro approach.
Is there a school stratification system that dis-empowers particular
people? Are students oppressed by administration rules?
Do any categories of people (women, the poor, racial minorities,
etc) get lower quality education due to forces of inequality?
Who benefits and who pays in current education policies?
How is the curriculum influenced by the agenda of industrial
capitalists and other elites in society? Do U.S. schools propagandize
the virtues of capitalism, competition, and other dominant values?
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Example of model application:
Analysis of Education
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Symbolic Interactionism
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This model approaches education as a key source of subjective
reality, in which students negotiate and learn to perceive the world in
particular ways. Schools are agents of socialization. They teach
particular symbols that convey particular messages.
Unlike the other models, this model adopts a micro or socialpsychological approach.
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What symbols and meanings are being conveyed in our education systems?
What are the key statuses, roles and “realities” that schools promote?
How are statuses and roles negotiated in the everyday interaction at school?
How is everyday school life similar to a stage drama, with actors performing
scripted roles, such as the role of student, teacher, administrator?
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End of Chapter 1
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