Transcript Classification - Harrison High School

Classification
The evolution of Complexity:
single cell prokaryote to
multicellular eukaryotes
Aristotle to Linneaus
Taxonomy- classifying organisms
Binomial nomenclature and scientific names
Canis lupus, Turdis migratoris, Felis catus
Systematics- the study of biodiversity and its
classification, create phylogenies
Phylogeny- an organism’s evolutionary
history, a phylogenetic tree
Modern Classification System
• Domain
• Kingdom
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Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Archea, Eubacteria, and
Eukarya
Archeabacteria, Eubacteria,
Protista, Fungi, Plant, Animal
First part of Scientific name
Second part of Scientific name
The Evolution of Complexity
• Earth is approximately 4.5 billion years old
• 1st living things, prokaryotic bacteria cells
are found in the fossil record dating 3.5
billion years ago
• 1st eukaryotic cells appear in fossil record
dating 2.1 billion years ago
• Between 635-530 million years ago the
fossil record shows the diversity of algae
and small animal like organisms
Origin of Life
• Spontaneous Generation: life from non-life
was replaced with – Biogenesis
• Oparin’s hypothesis of the origin of life
was tested by Miller and Urey, creating
organic compounds but not life
• Endosymbiosis- the hypothesis behind the
evolution of eukaryotes from prokaryotes
• What is a Virus?- nonliving…
Composed of genetic material, RNA or DNA,
and a protein coat
Genetic material surrounded by a protein
coat, must have a host cell in order to
reproduce
Life cycles: Lytic (kills host cell) or
Lysogenic (incorporates DNA into host)
Human viral diseases
Virus- disease
• Flavivirus- Yellow Fever
• HIV- AIDS
• Herpes virus 3- Chicken
pox
• Filovirus- Ebola
• Hepatitus B- Hepatitus
• Influenza virus- Influenza
or pneumonia
• Epstien- Barr virus- Mono
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Polio virus- Polio
Rhabdovirus- Rabies
Voriola virus- Smallpox
Paramyxovirus- Mumps
3 Domains
1. Archea
2. Eubacteria
3. Eukarya
Bacteria once belonged to the same Kingdom,
Monera, but through Molecular Biology and the
study of evolution, Biologist realized they had
critical differences and should be placed into
their own category so the “Domain”
classification level was created.
6 Kingdoms
Archea and Eubacteria
• Archea Kingdom
All prokaryotic single celled organisms.
No Peptidoglycan in cell wall
Most ancient and extreme
They live in the harshest environments
Methanogens (anaerobic), thermoacidophiles (hot)
and halophiles (salty)
• Eubacteria Kingdom
True bacteria, all prokaryotic single celled
Have Peptidoglycan in cell wall
Classified by their shape and gram staining
Gram + have more peptidoglycan and stain purple
Gram – have less peptidoglycan and stain pink
Shapes and
Examples
• Sphere- Cocci, can occur in chains Streptococcus
Pneumoniae which can cause strep throat or Scarlet
fever, or grapelike clusters Staphylococcus aureus which
can cause skin infections and Toxic Shock syndrome
• Rod- Bacillus ex Escherichia coli (E.coli), Lactobacilli
which can cause tooth decay or one strain makes
Sourdough bread, other bacilli can cause botulism,
typhoid fever, and anthrax
• Spiral- Spirilla comes in 3 shapes 1. Vibro which is
curved caused Cholera, 2. Spirillum (thick spiral), and 3.
Spirochete (thin spiral) ex. Treponema pallidum causes
Syphilis and another strain can cause Lyme disease
Images of bacteria
Syphilis
Strep- chain
Staph - cluster
E. coli
and
Cholera
Essential Bacteria: ecosystems
depend on these small organisms
• Cyanobacteria- photosynthetic/producers,
building blocks of most aquatic food webs
• Nitrogen- Fixing Bacteria- symbiotic relationship
with plants, they help them absorb nitrogen from
the soil.
• Helpful: fermentation, digestion, biotechnology,
nitrogen fixing, decomposers, oxygen producers
• Antibiotics kill bacteria by destroying the cell
wall, gram negative have an extra lipid layer that
prevents the antibiotics from entering the cell.
Reproduction
• Bacteria reproduce asexually, binary fission
• Each bacteria has a single chromosome but can
have additional DNA in the form of plasmids.
• Plasmids increase Bacterial genetic variation
and contribute to Bacteria evolution
• Plasmids can be exchanged between different
bacteria (even different species) by a process
called conjugation.
• Plasmids can also be taken up by bacteria from
their environment via transformation.
• Additional DNA recombination can be introduced
via a bacteriophage, this is called transduction.
Review of Bacteria
All bacteria:
• Reproduce asexually
• Single celled
• Have cell wall
• Single strand of DNA
Some Bacteria:
• Autotrophic
• Heterotrophic
• Some move by flagella,
slime, spiral motion
• Some produce
endospores which allow
them to go dormant
during hostile conditions
• Some produce toxins
Kingdom Protista
• Kingdom of Mostly single celled organisms
• Categorized by their likeness to 3 other
kingdoms
• All Eukaryotic some Autotrophic and some
Heterotrophic
Algae- Plant like Protist
• Algae or Plant-like, Autotrophic, classified by
pigment with no cell wall, come form elaborate
colonies and multicellular structures (kelp and
seaweed)
•
Chrysophyta- Golden Algae ex diatoms
•
Pyrrophyta- bioluminescent/glow
ex. Dinoflagellates
•
Euglenaphyta- ex Euglena
•
Rhodophyta- red
•
Phaeophyta- brown, seaweed and kelp
•
Chlorophyta- green, ex Volvox, Spirogyra
Images of algae
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Volvox
Spirogyra
Red algae
Seaweed
Kelp
Diatoms
Protozoa or Animal like Protist
Protozoa or Animal-like, classified by mode of movement
•
Sarcodina ex. Amoeba- move by pseudopodia
“false foot”
•
Ciliophora ex Paramecium- move by cilia, tiny hairs
•
Zoomastigina ex Trypanosoma (African Sleeping
Sickness) moves by flagella
•
Sporozoa, are the parasitic animal like protista,
include Plasmodium which causes Malaria
Images of Protozoa
• Amoeba
• Paramecium
• Trypanosoma
Fungus-like Protista
• Fungus-like are all
Heterotrophic with no cell wall,
absorbing nutrients directly
through cell membrane
• Include Plasmodium or Slime
Molds and Downy Mildews
Kingdom Fungi
• All Eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophs
(saprotrophs or detrivores living off dead and
decaying organisms or decomposers), cell wall
made of chitin (type of protein), and classified
by reproductive structures.
• Mycoses is the term for Fungal Infection,
Fungus destroys the cells around the infection
site, to fight fungal infection you have to destroy
the cell wall
• Fungi are important part of an ecosystem
because they recycle nutrients/ decomposers
Classifications of Fungi
• Club Fungi – Basidiomycota , Basidia, ex
Mushrooms
• Sac Fungi- Ascomycota, Asci, ex. Truffles,
Morels,Yeast, and Athletes Foot Fungus
• Zygote Fungi – Zygomycota, Sporangia, ex.
Bread molds
• Imperfect- Deuteromycota, reproduce
asexually, ex Penicillian
• Lichen- Mycophycophyta, symbiotic relationship
between fungus and photosynthetic cells of
cyanobacteria or algae.
Images of Fungi
Kingdom Plante
•
•
Multicellular, Eukaryotic, Cell wall made
of cellulose, Autotrophs, not capable of
movement, reproduce sexually some
produce spores and others seeds.
Most have vascular tissues which include
roots, stems, and leaves, and specialized
tissues called xylem and phloem.
Plant evolution
• Evolved from green algae, 400-450 mya
• Evidence: they both…
– Chlorophyll a, b, and carotenoids
– Thylakoid membranes
– Cell walls of cellulose
– Stored carbohydrates as starch
**Primitive plants were aquatic, but adaptations
have allowed them to be successful on land.
Plant evolution cont’d
• Adaptations to terrestrial life
– Cuticle (leaf)- keep water in
– Stoma (leaf)- control gas exchange
– Development of specialized tissues
leaf, root, stem, root hairs, vascular tissue
– Symbiosis with fungi and bacteria to increase
nutrient uptake
– Secondary growth- lateral meristem to thicken
structures
– Spores and seeds not dependent on water
Basic Plant Anatomy
• The leaf
– Cuticle
– Stoma
- Vascular bundles
- mesophyll
Alternative Pathways in
Photosynthesis involve
evolution in leaf anatomy and
storage of CO2 within the leaf
Figure 10.20 A review of photosynthesis
“C3” Plants
Photosynthesis relies on CO2 entering
the leaf and O2 leaving the leaf
Leaf surfaces contain stomata
18 µm
Guard cells
Pore
Stoma
Carbon dioxide diffuses into leaves through stomata
H 2O
Leaf cross-section
CO2
BUT: water also
escapes through
the stomata
Remember… the roles of
H2O and CO2 in
photosynthesis?
• H2O is needed for PSII in the
light reaction to produce ATP
• CO2 is needed for the Calvin
Cycle and Carbon Fixation into
G3P
chlorophyll a
ETC of Photosynthesis
Photosystem II
chlorophyll b
Photosystem I
AP Biology
Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
 Light reactions elevate
electrons in
2 steps (PS II & PS I)

PS II generates
energy as ATP

PS I generates
reducing power as NADPH
ATP
AP Biology
Cyclic photophosphorylation
 If PS I can’t pass electron
to NADP…it cycles back
to PS II & makes more
ATP, but no NADPH
coordinates light
reactions to Calvin cycle
 Calvin cycle uses more
ATP than NADPH


18 ATP +
NADPH
AP12
Biology
 1 C6H12O6
ATP
Photophosphorylation
cyclic
photophosphorylation
NADP
NONcyclic
photophosphorylation
ATP
AP Biology
Another problem for C3 plants
 Photorespiration is a process in plant metabolism
by which RuBP (a sugar) has oxygen added to it by the
enzyme (rubisco), instead of carbon dioxide during normal
photosynthesis
 Photorespiration can occur when carbon dioxide levels are
low, for example, when the stomata are closed to prevent
water loss during drought. In most plants, photorespiration
increases as temperature increases. Photorespiration
produces no ATP and leads to a net loss of carbon and
nitrogen (as ammonia), slowing plant growth.
 Potential photosynthetic output may be reduced by
photorespiration by up to 25% in C3 plants.
AP Biology
C4 plants sequester CO2 in certain cells
CO2
Organic
acid
C4 pathway
CO2 stored
in mesophyll cell
CO2
Calvin cycle
CO2 used in
adjacent bundle
sheath cell
G3P
Examples of C4 plants: corn, sugarcane, many grasses
Figure 10.18 C4 leaf anatomy and the C4 pathway
C4 Plants
include sugar cane and corn
CAM plants sequester CO2 at night
CO2
CO2 stored
at night
Organic
acid
C4 pathway
CO2
Calvin
cycle
CO2 used
during the day
G3P
Examples of CAM plants: pineapples, cacti, and most succulents.
CAM Plants
Photosynthetic adaptation to arid conditions evolved in many
succulent, water-storing plants: cacti, pineapples
Figure 10.19 C4 and CAM photosynthesis compared
Spore Producing Divisions of Plant
9 Phyla of Plants: can be divided into spore or
seed producers
Spore producers
• Bryophyta only nonvascular plants, ex moss
and liverwort (gametophyte dominant stage of
life cycle know as alternation of generations)
• Lycopodophyta ex. 1,000 species of Club and
Spike moss
• Pterophytes 12,000 species of ferns, horsetails,
and whisk ferns have compound leaves called
fronds (dominant stage is the sporophyte)
Spore producing plant images
Seed producers
• Gymnosperms: reproductive structure is
the cone , “naked seed”
– Cycadophyta 130 species of these tropical
plants
– Ginkgophyta 1 species remains the Gingko
tree
– Coniferophyta 600 species of conifers, pine,
spruce, cypress, juniper, fir
– Gnetophyta 75 species of these arid/semidesert dwelling plants
Seed producers
Angiosprems- reproductive structure is the flower,
seeds are surrounded by fleshy or dry fruit that ripen to
encourage animals to disperse the seeds.
30,000 or more identified species
maple, hickory, oak, aloe, roses, tulips, dogwood,
magnolia, corn, beans, tobacco, apple tree, pecan tree
2 classes:
Monocots – with one seed leaf or cotyledon and
parallel veins on the leaf, orchids, lilies, grass,
corn, grains
Dicots- with two seed leafs and branched veins on
the leaf, roses, peas, beans, and oaks
Seed producers- gymnosperms
“Cone Bearers”
Seed plants- Angiosperm
Flowering Plant images
• Produce flowers and fruits (fleshy or dry)
Dry and Fleshy fruits
• Fruit is the mature
ovary of the flower.
• It surrounds the seed
and is often used to
promote seed
dispersal.
• Animals eat the fruit
and seed and poop it
somewhere else, this
reduces competition
with the parent plant.
Parts of a Flower
• Pollination- fertilization of the female gamete
by the male gamete
• Flowers are designed to attract a pollinator,
either by color, smell, or offer of food.
• Birds, insects, and mammals act as pollinator
Other Plant Info.
Symbiotic relations ships:
• Plants and Nitrogen fixing Bacteria
• Flower patterns and scent attract
pollinators
• Fruits promote seed dispersal by offering
a sweet reward to animals.
Plant Adaptations:
• Tropism- plant activities controled by
hormones
– phototropism (light), geotropism (gravity), and
thigmotropism (touch)
• specialized leaves (needles, spines, fuzzy,
waxy) help reduce water loss in arid
environments
Animalia
multicellular, eukaryotic, no cell wall,
heterotrophs, capable of movement,
reproduce sexually, body symmetry (radial
or bilateral)
9 Phyla- 8 invertebrate and 1 vertebrate
Invertebrate- Porifera
• Porifera- two cell layers, collar cells
w/flagella, filter feeders, ex. sponges
Invertebrate- Cnidarian
• Cnidarians- Stinging cells (nematocytes),
radial symmetry, simple nervous system
only stimulus and response, central cavity
only one body opening, ex. jellyfish, coral,
hydra, sea anemone
Invertebrate- worms
• Plathyhelmenthes: flat worms, only one body
opening, three cell layers,ex. Tapeworm, Fluke,
Planarian, Marine worms
• Nematode: round worms, first with two body
openings, 3 cell layers, many parasitic,
Heartworm, Roundworm, Vinegar Eel
• Annelid: segmented worms, two body openings,
3 cell layers, beginning of circulatory system,
and digestive system (crop), ex. Earthworm and
Leech
Worm images
• Plathyhelmenthes
•
Annelid
Nematode
Invertebrate Mollusk
• soft body, more complex body systems
developing, eyes and nervous system,
levels of communication beyond stimulus
and response
3 classes
• Gastropod (snails and slugs),
• Cephalopod (squid octopus cuttlefish and
chambered nautilus),
• Bivalve (oyster, clam, mussel, scallop)
Mollusk images
• Bivalves
Gastropods
Cephalopods
Invertebrate- Arthropod
• jointed legs, exoskeleton, body segments (head,
thorax, and abdomen), metamorphosis
(complete or incomplete)
4 classes:
Insect -6 legs (ant, grasshopper, beetle, bee,
wasp)
Arachnid -8 legs (spider, tick, horseshoe crab),
Crustacean -10 legs (shrimp, lobster, barnacles,
crayfish)
Myrapods -many legs, centipede and millipedes
Arthropod images
Invertebrate- Echinoderm
Characteristics: spiny skin, complex
regeneration capacity, found only in
marine environments, radial symmetry,
Examples: Sea urchin, Sand dollar, Starfish,
Sea cucumber
Vertebrates- Chordata
Chordate notachord, complex body systems,
sexual reproduction (internal or external
fertilization) 5 classes:
Fish
Amphibians
Reptiles
Birds
Mammals
Fish
• Fish, moist skin covered in scales, gills to
breathe, 2 chambered heart, cold blooded,
3 types:
1. bony ex Trout, Salmon, Bass, Catfish,
Grouper, Tarpon.
2. jawless, ex. Lamprey and tunicates
3. cartilaginous ex. Sharks and Rays
Fish images
Amphibian
• Amphibian, cold blooded, 3 chambered
heart, born in water, develop lungs,
smooth moist skin, ex. salamander, newts,
frogs, and toads (only dry skin)
Reptile
• Reptile, dry leathery skin with scales, cold
blooded, most have a 3 chambered heart,
amniote/terrestrial eggs, ex. Lizards,
snakes, turtles, alligator, crocodile
Birds
• Bird, warm blooded, 4 chambered heart,
hollow bones, body with feathers
Mammal
• Mammal, warm blooded, 4 chambered heart,
milk producers, body with hair/fur
• Placental (live birth), Marsupial (pouch) ex.
Kangaroo, and Monotremes
(egg) ex
Platypus
Animal Form
Body structure and develpment
Fig. 32-2-3
Blastocoel
Cleavage
Endoderm
Cleavage Blastula
Ectoderm
Zygote
Eight-cell stage
Gastrulation
Blastocoel
Cross section
of blastula
Gastrula
Blastopore
Archenteron
Fig. 32-3
Individual
choanoflagellate
Choanoflagellates
OTHER
EUKARYOTES
Sponges
Animals
Collar cell
(choanocyte)
Other animals
Fig. 32-7
(a) Radial symmetry
(b) Bilateral symmetry
Fig. 32-8
Coelom
Digestive tract
(from endoderm)
Body covering
(from ectoderm)
Tissue layer
lining coelom
and suspending
internal organs
(from mesoderm)
(a) Coelomate
Body covering
(from ectoderm)
Pseudocoelom
Muscle layer
(from
mesoderm)
Digestive tract
(from endoderm)
(b) Pseudocoelomate
Body covering
(from ectoderm)
Tissuefilled region
(from
mesoderm)
Wall of digestive cavity
(from endoderm)
(c) Acoelomate
Fig. 32-9
Protostome development
(examples: molluscs,
annelids)
Deuterostome development
(examples: echinoderm,
chordates)
Eight-cell stage
Eight-cell stage
Spiral and determinate
(a) Cleavage
Radial and indeterminate
(b) Coelom formation
Key
Coelom
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Archenteron
Coelom
Mesoderm
Blastopore
Blastopore
Solid masses of mesoderm
split and form coelom.
Mesoderm
Folds of archenteron
form coelom.
Anus
Mouth
(c) Fate of the blastopore
Digestive tube
Mouth
Mouth develops from blastopore.
Anus
Anus develops from blastopore.
Animal Behaviors
Innate:
1. Instincts- complex pattern of innate behaviors,
reflexes, fight or flight, courtships, species
recognition (language, song, flashes of
pattern/light)
2. Territory- physical space needed for breeding,
feeding, and shelter, organisms can expend a
lot of energy defending territory some will fight
to the death.
3. Migration- instinctive seasonal movement,
response to a changing environment, includes
hibernation (cold) and estivation (dry and hot)
Behaviors cont’d
Learned:
• Habituation- animal repeats a successful
behavior, and does not repeat an
unsuccessful behavior, birds learn which
moths are poisonous by color and avoid
eating them after becoming ill or getting a
bad taste. Deer return to the same grazing
field when successful.
• Imprinting – salmon and turtles return to
same stream or beach to lay eggs in which
they hatched, the environment left an
imprint or memory
Adaptations for Defense:
• Mechanical- physical structures
• Chemical- stinging sensations, poisons,
bad taste, paralysis
• Camouflage- color or pattern that blend
into environment
– Disruptive- ex zebra
– Cryptic- ex chameleon and squid
– Countershading- ex Fish have light belly and
dark back