科学传播的理论溯源

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Transcript 科学传播的理论溯源

科学传播的理论溯源、发展及其对中国传播
学研究的机遇
贾鹤鹏 ([email protected])
《科学新闻》杂志原总编辑,康乃尔大学传播学系博士候选人
北京科技报媒体科学传播研讨班
2016年10月20日
Summary
• Science communication, risk communication and health communication
• Science communication: A bibliometrics survey
• Challenge of science of science communication
• Public engagement in science in crossroads.
• Risk comm: perception matters
• Health comm: persuasion theories
• 对科普实践的启示:以转基因为例
Science communication, risk communication, health
communication and environmental communication
 A very similar origin: social struggles & tensions in 1960s and 1970s in the
West.
科学传播、风险传播与健康传播
 A very similar origin: social tensions and struggles in 1960s and 1970s in the
West.
 Rising concerns on the social, moral, or religious implications of scientific
advances, the tension between environmental value and technological
development, and the worry about health hazards of emerging technologies,
and the decline of public trust in scientists and public institutions contributed to
the surging number of S&T controversies in the public domain (Nelkin, 1995).
 A similar but slight deviant origin of health communication – why behavior not
changed.
 Are there differences and how?
科学传播、风险传播、环境传播与健康传播
科学传播: 科学需要被公众了解 (PuS 1985) and social construction of science
(Collins 1981). 但谁应该理解什么?(Lewenstein, 1992)
风险传播: 从评估风险开始,聚焦在风险感的测评 (Plough & Krimsky,1987;
Fischhoff, 1995), and now mainly risk perception regarding S&T and driving
variables (trust, value, emotion, culture);
环境传播:公众参与决策 (NSC, 2008; Dietz 2013);
健康传播: 获取知识和行为改变(least attended to by SC scholars) and currently
focused on contextualized behavior changed,
科学传播、风险传播、环境传播与健康传播
科学传播:批判传播过程中的科技垄断与公民科学素养。社会学路径为主
风险传播 & 危机管理:彼此深深融合。 心理学路径为主。
环境传播: 气候变化成为主流
健康传播:行为改变
科学传播:年满30!
• Public Understanding of Science Report issued in 1985, initiating
professional science communication research & practice.
• The journal Public Understanding of Science (PuS) founded in 1992,
regularly ranked as top 10 communication journal by ISI Web of Science
and as top 3 journal among ISI category history & philosophy of
science.
• Another journal Science Communication (SC), renamed from STS
journal Knowledge also ranked as leading communication and STS
journal in terms of impact factor.
• PuS has become a platform to test new ideas and noticeable knowledge
broker for science & society (Bauer & Howard, 2012; Suerdem et. al
2013).
科学传播:年满30!
• 科学传播: 科技研究血脉+公众理解科学
• 研究社会的科学
• 批判科学与促进公众理解科学平行
• PCST(公众理解科学大会),AAAS年会/ESOF混合
科学传播的理论传统
• 科学传播对科普实践的批评
作为一个特定研究领域的科学传播的发展,离不开多年来的科学普及的实践
。然而科学传播的学术研究,在很大程度上恰恰起步于对传统科学普及活动
的反思与批判。
科学传播的主流研究的科学主义。. 该领域学者批判了认为公众缺乏科学知
识、需要进行科学普及的缺失模型(deficit model);他们指出,科学传播
应从缺失模型向强调公众与科学家对话的公众参与科学模型(Public
engagement with science)转变。近年来,也有一些学者提出应该以社会中
的科学(science in society)来取代公众参与科学这一提法,因为公众并没
有义务来主动参与科学进程。
除了反思和批判性理论外,科学传播在其学科形成和成长过程中,还发展出
另一大传统,那就是对影响公众科技态度的社会心理因素的探究。多年来这
一传统的研究已经甄别出包括信任、知识、风险感以及收益感等31个常用的
影响公众对新兴技术的态度的社会心理变量。[13]
科学传播的主要理论传统
• 科学传播-社会学的视角
科学传播发生在特定的社会环境中,受到特定因素的影响。
科学传播的过程与权力密不可分,权力不仅包括政治权力,科学本身就是一
种权力。
公众对新兴科技的态度虽然与知识有关,但并不完全决定于知识本身。
正是因为科学传播的过程与权力密不可分,所以我们需要公众参与科学。这
不仅仅是一个道义立场。
科学传播的主要理论传统
• 科学传播-社会学的视角
学者指出,公众理解科学这一提法,要求公众理解的是科学的好处而不是其
对社会的影响(Lewenstein, 1992)。
科学普及被建构成与科学研究截然不同且有损科学真实性的阶段,而科学家
则拥有界定何为科普何为科研的裁量权,这让他们获得了话语霸权
(Hilgartner, 1990)。
科学知识并不一定超越民间知识,如切尔诺贝利核电站事故后英国坎特伯雷
羊农的经历(Wynne, 1992)。
科学传播
社会学的视角: 公众参与科学
 批判的科学传播研究最大的成果是奠定了公众参与科学模
型在科学传播中的主导地位。 (Suerdem et. al 2013).
 已经成为了一个万金油一般的词汇 (Bensaude Vincent,
2014).
 Bibliometric search: 75 papers by 2012 in topic search among
all SC and PUS papers (n = 1,239).
2
科学传播
社会学的视角: 公众参与科学
 标志性事件是丹麦政府于2012年停止了对丹麦技术委员会
(Danish Board of Technology)的资助。丹麦技术委员会以开创
和频繁举办科学共识会议而闻名世界科学传播界。
 科学传播学者虽然热衷于公众参与,但公众对于与自己切身利益
并不相关的科技议题却缺乏参与的兴趣。这说明,并不能简单地
把民主政治的原则搬入到科学传播领域。
 此外,公众参与科学也面临着如何选择公众代表、何为恰当的话
题、缺乏手段评估传播效果等一系列难题。在互联网时代,科学
传播学者也亟待研究和探索如何通过网络实现公民有效参与科学
。
4
科学传播的理论传统
• 2. 科学传播的其他传统
除了反思和批判性理论外,科学传播在其学科形成和成长过程中,还发展出
另一大传统,那就是对影响公众科技态度的社会心理因素的探究。多年来这
一传统的研究已经甄别出包括信任、知识、风险感以及收益感等31个常用的
影响公众对新兴技术的态度的社会心理变量。这一传统除了公民科学素养调
研外,其他方面与风险传播融合在一起。
Public engagement in science in crossroads
第二节. 科学传播的科学
社会学的视角: 科学与媒体的关系
Despite the arrival of new media, mass media remains
the primary science sources of the public
(Lewenstein 2011, 任福君 2011, NSF 2014).
Despite the media’s crucial role, the science-media
relationship has been described as metaphors and
terms such as “distance”, “gap”, “barrier”, “fence”,
“oil and water”, and “creative tension” (Peters
2014).
“The distance between science and journalism threatens
America’s future” (Hartz & Chappell,1997)
第二节. 科学传播的科学
社会学的视角: 科学与媒体的关系
However, 48% scientists recognize TV and broadcasting remain
the most effective SC channel (Besley & Nisbet, 2011).
On the other hand, media are the major agenda-setting player and
badly dealing with media can negatively impact scientists’
career (Dunwoody,Brossard & Dudo 2009).
Pew/AAAS survey show 97% of AAAS members believe they
should join political debate through media more actively
(Besley & Nisbet, 2011).
A survey targeting US, Japan, French, British and German
epidemiologists show 46% of surveyed scientists say dealing
with media has positive effects (Peters et al., 2008).
科学传播
社会学的视角: 媒体报道有利于科学家
NEJM: a paper published by New York Times will be cited 70%
more in the subsequent year (Phillips et al.1991).
Duplicating the NEJM research find similar effects across leading
journals and major US mass media (Kiernan 2003).
As long as a paper is made new release and distributed to media,
two times of downloading and citations (Chapman et al. 2007).
Paper reported in Italian press, 16 per cent more citation.
Survey targeting scientists publishing in epidemiological and stem
cells show scientists’ professional development positively
associated with being reported by media (Dunwoody,Brossard
and Dudo 2009).
科学传播
社会学的视角: 媒体报道的议程设置与偏见
追求轰动效应往往是媒体报道科学问题上的一贯策略(M. C. Nisbet & Lewenstein,
2002)。
在传播气候变化的过程中,媒体往往把气候变化与天气事件联系(Boykoff, 2008)
,并更多凸显戏剧化叙事,总是集中于追求轰动性效果。它们的报道经常热
衷有关气候变化的争议,但对这些辩论的背景却很少足够关注(Corbett &
Durfee, 2004)。
媒体报道气候变化的另一个策略则是赋予其各种叙事框架。较早的研究发现,责
任、冲突、经济后果、人类利益和道德是媒体在报道气候变化时普遍采取的
框架(Semetko & Valkenburg, 2000),而随后的研究则分析了气候变化议题的8
种特定框架, 如科学的非确定性、应对将会带来的经济后果、不应对将引发的
潜在灾难等,从事这一研究的学者Nisbet格外推荐媒体应该采用公共健康与国
家安全这两个更容易打动读者的框架来报道气候变化(M. C. Nisbet, 2009; M.
C. Nisbet & Scheufele, 2009)。
科学传播
社会学的视角: 媒体报道的议程设置与偏见
学者们探讨各种媒体报道气候变化的模式,其目的之一是促成媒体更加有效地动
员公众。但他们也发现,气候变化的质疑者利用这些媒体机制放大了他们缺乏
科学证据、缺乏主流学界支持的结论(Boykoff, 2013)。
例如,《纽约时报》、《华盛顿邮报》和《洛杉矶时报》这些美国的主流媒体,寻求信息
来源的均衡恰恰体现了一种偏见,因为这些主流媒体的报道在报道全球变暖
的事实时,总是援引反对气候变化的人士的话语,中和了关于气候变化具有紧
迫性的科学发现(Boykoff & Boykoff, 2004)。
一些媒体则凸显了不确定性、争议和怀疑说法(Antilla, 2005)。而另一方面,由于气
候变化议题在美国的争议,媒体记者在报道此类选题时,则对一些重大但具有
不确定性的科学发现非常谨慎,体现了一种自我审查(Antilla, 2010)。
在党派属性鲜明的媒体上,这一点也有体现。如体现保守主义立场的Fox新闻就比
CNN和MSNBC更多邀请气候怀疑论者发声(Feldman, Maibach, Roser-Renouf,
& Leiserowitz, 2012)。
Science communication as a discipline
• 传统科学传播研究产生了政策影
响力么?
Research question: Are we heard?

ISI Web of Science (Sorry for shifting between databases. Scopus does not have a subcategories for social science journals) reports an Average Citations per Item to be 8.32
while H-index to be 46 among all the 1,239 PuS and SC articles.

Based on ISI Web of Science reports (can only report per 10,000 or less), I calculated the
37,786 articles in all of its indexed 72 communication journals between 1992 and 2012 (the
period when the two sc journals were published) have Average Citations per Item of 7.27
and 79.25 H-index. Sc journals have relatively a good performance considering their
younger age.

Based on ISI Web of Science reports, I calculated the 42,444 articles in all of its indexed
39 history & philosophy of science journals between 1992 and 2012 have Average
Citations per Item of 2.2 and 40 H-index. Two sc journals, which also belong to history &
philosophy of science, have much outperformed the latter.
Are we heard?
Source: Web of Science
Are we heard by scientists?

ISI Web of Science recorded all articles in SC and PuS by 2012 were cited by 4,973
journal papers other than themselves (by April 24, 2014). Among them, 2,088 were
contributed by Natural Science journals.

Randomly selecting top natural science journals, like Science, Nature, Nature journals, I
found articles citing SC and PuS mainly four types, science communication, science policy,
science & society and general review of a certain hot research topic (particularly nano and
climate change).

Unbalanced knowledge flow: e.g. We cited 600 from Science and Nature but were cited by
Science by 10 and Nature by 2.

No evidence shows we are heard by scientists. But we indeed are heard by science
community, as indicated by the fact that we are widely cited by natural science journals but
not by natural scientists.
Are we heard by policymakers?

Both Borchelt (2012) and Suerdem et. al (2013) indicate public engagement in science (PES) has
replaced public understanding of science to become top theme in SC scholarship.

A recent special PuS issue on public engagement in science picked up a batch of problems
encountered by PES: How to define public, the selection problem, efficiency and contingency for
institutions, the topic selection and remaining hegemony (replacing hegemony in the deficit models),
no clear models, how to evaluate (problematic definitions of impacts), lack of online participation.
(Various authors, in PUS Special Issue, 2014, 23(1): 3-76.)

But meanwhile, most authors (including authors in a special PES issue of Science and Engineering
Ethics (17(4): 607-849) also believe our (SC scholars) work has been fruitful in promoting policy
makers to get accustomed to engagement practice & various dialogues with the public.

How have our specific research in PuS, SC and JSC been heard by policymakers via policy advisory
reports? We suppose, based on anecdotic assumption, that policymakers will not read our papers
directly.
决策者是否被影响

Searching National Academies of Sciences (NAS) Press website (NAP.edu) where most of sciencebased policy reports by NAS, National Research Council (NRC), NSF (commonly in the name of
NRC), Institute of Medicines (IoM), National Academy of Engineering, and NIH&FDA (often
commission IoM) can be freely downloaded. The current number is 5,219 books (mostly representing
policy reports) are freely downloadable (Access date: April 26, 2014).

Using “public engagement” as search term results in 690 policy reports (books), including about 200
workshop/symposium reports (where no reference information available) that were later excluded.
Based on simple classifications (particularly excluding pure natural science reports such as modeling
climate change), 138 formal reports were found to be somewhat related to the theme “public
engagement in science (PES)”. Among them, about 50 reports are focused on PES, or have a strong
portion about it.
科学传播的科学的挑战
• 在提倡者看来, “科学传播的科学”指的是利用
决策科学、行为科学与社会科学已经取得的丰
硕成果,在科学传播的过程中,系统地梳理人
们做决策所需的科学内容、鉴别人们已经了解
的知识,设计传播方案来填补前两者间的空白
并评估传播效果。
1
Challenges of science of science communication
“Scientific” approach to studying science communication:
• 主流传播学者指出,任何人处理信息的认知能力都是有限
的,这一认知机制不能支持他们主动关注和学习与自己生
活没有直接关系的科学知识
• 在日常生活中,人们因为偶然机遇产生了各种初始信念,
这形成了他们判断科技信息的认知框架。
• 这些框架一旦形成,大多数人就不会仔细分辨生活中海量
的科技信息。 比如转基因。
Challenges of science of science communication
受试者在第一次试验中分别阅读了有关碳纳米管的正面信息
和负面信息,在一周后又参加了同时提供碳纳米管正面和负
面信息的跟踪实验。在第一次实验中接受了碳纳米管有节能
收益这一正面信息的人,在跟踪实验中往往认为有关碳纳米
管的正面信息为有效内容,而并不认可负面信息。而在首次
实验中接受了碳纳米管有健康风险这一负面信息的受试者,
在跟踪实验中往往认为负面信息是正确的
(Druckman&Bolsen, 2011)。
Challenges of science of science communication
先让被试阅读有关纳米技术风险与收益的均衡信息,然后将
被试分为两组,一组接触包含很多脏话的网络留言,另一组
则接触正常的留言。结果,前一组被试感知到的纳米技术风
险显著高于没有接触脏话的第二组被试者。
Easiness theory (Scharrer et al. 2013)
让两组没有相关背景的学生阅读实质内容相同的一段有关纳
米技术风险与收益的材料,一组被试读的内容有很多专业名
词,另一组没有。结果显示,阅读专业名词的那一组学生感
知到的纳米风险性更高。
Media Bias theory (Gunther et al. 2004 & 2006)
Challenges of science of science communication
“Scientific” approaches neglected by Traditional Science
Communication Scholars:
• Unbalance principle of Trust; Biases in risk perception (Slovic 1993, 1997)
• Motivated reasoning (Druckman 2011).
• Climate change framing & attention bias (Schultz 2007); Party bias and selective use
of information (Schudt, 2014)
• Climate change debate = body reactions?
Challenges to science of science communication
•
•
•
•
Among high-impacting traditional SC papers, no lack of topics in the style of science of SC.
e.g.:
Allum; et al. (2008). Science knowledge and attitudes across cultures: a meta-analysis. PuS, 17(1):
35-54.
Lee; Scheufele; Lewenstein (2005). Public attitudes toward emerging technologies - Examining the
interactive effects of cognitions and affect on public attitudes toward nanotechnology. SCIENCE
COMMUNICATION, 27(2): 240-267…
People ‘‘do not use all available information to make decisions about issues, including new
technologies or scientific discoveries. . . . Rather, they rely on heuristics or cognitive shortcuts,
such as ideological predispositions. . .’’ (Scheufele & Lewenstein, 2005)
But:
• 1) Unlike in risk communication, the effort to identify psychological factors related to trust is not
mainstream among high cited papers.
• 2) Even these identify psychological factors are analyzed in quantitative way, they are used to
indicate knowledge alone is not enough. So they play a role to remodel the traditional PUS/deficit.
• Why?
社会氛围中的科学传播
Why? Because of this. Which one can become (in)dependent
variables?
Source: Lewenstein 1994
Why? A process view seems dominating SC scholarship, especially if you look
at high-impacting papers.
10
对科学传播的科学的挑战
• Science of SC approach can identify one-time, cross-sectional
associations, but how about accumulated effects? For example, in long
term, knowledge does play a major role in predicting public supports for
GMO in Europe (Ceccoli & Hixon, 2012).
• Science of SC approach acknowledge the hegemony of knowledge by
scientists and does not question the credibility of knowledge by
scientists. The scholars tend to discuss “knowledge is there, but not
absorbed automatically.”
• Science of SC approach does not question the hegemony of knowledge.
科学传播:与媒体的关系
Despite the arrival of new media, mass media remains
the primary science sources of the public
(Lewenstein 2011, 任福君 2011, NSF 2014).
Despite the media’s crucial role, the science-media
relationship has been described as metaphors and
terms such as “distance”, “gap”, “barrier”, “fence”,
“oil and water”, and “creative tension” (Peters
2014).
“The distance between science and journalism threatens
America’s future” (Hartz & Chappell,1997)
科学传播
社会学的视角: 媒体报道有利于科学家
NEJM: a paper published by New York Times will be cited 70%
more in the subsequent year (Phillips et al.1991).
Duplicating the NEJM research find similar effects across leading
journals and major US mass media (Kiernan 2003).
As long as a paper is made new release and distributed to media,
two times of downloading and citations (Chapman et al. 2007).
Paper reported in Italian press, 16 per cent more citation.
Survey targeting scientists publishing in epidemiological and stem
cells show scientists’ professional development positively
associated with being reported by media (Dunwoody,Brossard
and Dudo 2009).
科学媒体化
• 受益于媒体报道,科学家的研究开始追逐媒体关注。
• 媒体与科学日益紧密的纽带以及科研趋向媒体喜好称之为科学媒体化
(science’s medialization) (Weingart, 1992)。
• 科学媒体化的概念和研究已经成为了科学学(science studies)研究中探讨
科学与媒体关系的最热点问题
• 在热点研究领域,证据越来越多。人类基因组工程大部分受访科学家具
有媒体联系人,且媒体报道会对他们的研究造成影响 (Rödder, 2009)。
• 不仅个体科学家如此,人类基因组工程的组织实施、项目进展和公共展
示等,无一不考虑媒体的存在并以满足能向媒体展示这一需求为衡量指
标 (Hilgartner , 2012)。
科学媒体化(2)
人们担心科学媒体化会扭曲科学家的行为。
•
然而,科学家们的确很在乎媒体报道。但他们更加看重同行评价,如果在两者矛盾时更多
选择同行认可 (Jung 2012)。
•
科学家对待公众知名度的态度也经常模凌两可(Rödder 2012)。
•
在受调查的科学家具有的职业媒体联系人的数量和这些科学家的课题选择以及受媒体报道
影响的程度之间,并没有统计上有意义的相关性。 (Schäfer, Schlichting & Schmidt, 2013)。
•
在干细胞领域这一趋势非常明显,在人类基因组项目中只能看到部分表象,而在物理学研
究热点中微子研究领域,则完全观测不到任何与科学媒体化的上述表现有关的现象 (Rödde
r& Schäfer 2013)。
•
实际上,2001年,各国科学家共生产了65万篇发表在同行评议期刊上的国际可检索论文,
其中只有0.013—0.34%得到了媒体关注 (Suleski, 2010)。
•
贾鹤鹏&王大鹏的研究初步结果表明,中国缺乏科学媒体化
科学媒体化(3)
•
科学媒体化的担忧是否过滤?
•
One one hand, it is a result of hyping the role of media. Media simply follows scientists.
•
Funding plays: Science’s medialization may simply be a result of politics’ medialization (Peters
2012).
•
But on the other hand, it is significant in that a reversed science media relationship is needed for
consideration.
•
A co-creation of meaning between science and media actually always exists and science’s
medialization is a reflection of it which had previously been hidden due to science’s hegemonic
role.
•
Situation in developing countries like China should be considered.
Risk Communication: From we to you
• Effective communication between interested is ABSTRACT: parties widely
held to be a vital element in health and environmental risk management
decision making.
• Three phases: Phase I emphasized risk: what they are. Phase II stresses
communication: persuasive communication. Phase III: dealing with both
dimensions (Leiss, 1996).
• Six/seven stages: STAGE 1-- Get the Numbers Right; STAGE 2 -- Tell
Them the Numbers; STAGE 3- Explain What We Mean By the Numbers;
Stage 4 -- Show They’ve Accepted Similar Risks in The Past; STAGE 5Show Them That It’s a Good Deal for Them; STAGE 6: Treat Them Nice;
STAGE 7 -- Make Them Partners (Fischhoff 1995).
Risk Communication: From we to you
• So here a clear turning point can be found: From we to you.
• Around this period (late 1990s & early 2000s), a deviation between science
communication and risk communication can be found. On the “we” side, SC critically
thinks what “we” are not; Risk communication demonstrate how we can’t.
• Deviation between science communication and risk communication: On the “you”
side, SC critically/sociologically thinks whom “you” are; Risk communication
analytically/psychologically demonstrate what “you” think.
• Both argue for public participation, but SC stresses more legitimacy and knowledge
issues (because not in psycho approach); and Risk comm focus more technical and
psychological issues.
• Now science of science communication primarily driven by risk comm researchers.
Risk Communication: Perception matters
• With the turning point “from we to you”, risk perception research becomes more and
more important.
Risk Communication: Perception matters
• The degree of risk perception is a function by the level of knowing and dreadfulness.
Risk Communication: Perception matters
• Unbalance principle of Trust; Biases in risk perception (Slovic 1993, 1997)
• Risk perception: emotion matters [e.g. Cognitive Functional Model (Nabi,
1999) &dual-processing cognitive response theories (e.g. Chaiken, 1987; Petty
& Cacioppo, 1986)]
• Risk perception: frame matters (Emotion-as-a-frame, Kühne & Schemer,
2013; Kim & Cameron, 2011; Nabi, 2002; Kim & Niederdeppe, 2014)
• Easiness theory (Scharrer et al. 2013)
• Perception = body reactions?
Current risk comm: Society back in
Pure perception approach’s bottlenecks:
• Can temporary perception last?
• Data often cross-sectional
• Defining issues
• Perception versus action: Can perception bring certain actions?
• Individual versus organizational.
• Participation & deliberative democracy.
Current risk comm: Society back in
Sociopsychological versus Psychosocial approach:
• Risk is also a social phenomenon.
• Risk management always involves governance.
• Social background cause different reactions
• Participation & deliberative democracy is not an individual issue.
Current risk comm: Society back in
Schuldt, J., & Roh, S. (2014). Media frames and cognitive accessibility: What do “global
warming” and “climate change” evoke in partisan minds? . Environmental
Communication. 8:529-548.
Schuldt, J., & Roh, S. (2014). Of accessibility and applicability: How heat-related cues
affect belief in "global warming" versus "climate change". Social Cognition. 32:219-240.
Summary
• Communication as a field
• Science communication, risk communication and health communication
• Science communication: A bibliometrics survey
• Challenge of science of science communication
• Public engagement in science in crossroads.
• Risk comm: perception matters
• Health comm: persuasion theories
• Possible Chinese contribution to the field
Health Communication as a field
Two journals: Health communication, Journal of Health Communication
健康传播
Relative young: Health
communication founded in 1989
while Journal of Health
Communication in 1996
However, the practice started much
earlier. Initially focused on the
design and effects of public health
campaigns, with persuasion effect a
key issue.
Health communication: start from
knowledge and behavior change.
健康传播: 有何不同
A late start as a field means more theoretical, at
leasted stressed to be so (Nazione et al. 2013)
A late start as a field means social tension and
solutions have not been a focus here, much less
critical.
Absorbing from other fields, so sociological theories
work, such as frames.
Doctor-patient relationship is a unique theme as
compared with SC and risk comm (but here
sociology back in).
Health literacy (individual) versus science literacy.
健康传播:重在说服;
 Like risk comm & science comm, health
comm, information and knowledge
became an earlier focus.
 How to better design health message &
public health campaign.
 But psychological approach quickly
emerges.
 Various persuasion models applied and
developed.
Health comm: Persuasion matters
Various persuasion models applied and developed in the health-related settings:
 Dual process models:
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)/Heuristic-Systematic Model
 Attribution theory
 Cognitive dissonance theory
 Functional theories
 Inoculation theory
 Social judgment theory
 Architecture of choices
A gap remains between persuasion models and behavior changes.
New information technologies, knowledge acquisition, cognitive process, and
behavior changes.
Health comm: An integrative model
A gap remains between persuasion models and behavior changes. The sources
and characters of information cannot be neglected.
Fishbein: An integrative theoretical model of behavior prediction (Fishbein &
Yzer,2003)
Health comm: Society back in
A gap remains between persuasion models and behavior changes.
The social setting and social identity cannot be neglected.
Can interact with psychological mechanism.
案例:转基因争议经久不息
• 随着科技的快速发展,转基因作物的研发和生产不断在全球范围扩散
。
• 尽管长期以来主流科学界与各国监管部门都认为目前经过商业化审批
的转基因品种对人体健康与环境造成的风险并不比传统作物更大,但
围绕着转基因的争论也从未消歇,并会因为个别事件而不断升温。
• 20多年来,各国学者对造成转基因争端的政治因素、传播形态以及社
会心理因素进行了大量研究。
• 下面将介绍转基因问题的产生、传播机制、媒体报道研究、转基因与
公众对体制的信任以及各种决定公众认知的因素
1 转基因问题的社会起源
转基因争端始于1990年代中期,伴随着西方社会不断增加的科学争议:
科学争议的集中爆发,与科学发展造成的对社会、道德和宗教的不断增
加的影响、环境价值与技术发展之间的张力、公众对新兴技术可能造成
的环境和健康的伤害、以及西方社会对科学家和以政府为主的公共机构
(public institutions)的信任度下降密切相关。
对转基因的抗议适逢疯牛病事件爆发及英国政府最初的隐瞒动摇了公众
对政府管理的信心。
一项2000年英国的实验研究显示,同样的转基因信息,如果告诉公众这
是(英国)政府认可的,对该信息的信任度就会出现明显下降。
2 科学界的转基因传播
很多科学家并没有站在公众的立场上看待这个问题。
科学家们普遍认为,公众对转基因的抵制,是因为公众对生物知识的无知、以
及他们不切现实地要求绝对的零风险造成的。
科学家与公众对风险的界定具有极大的不同。科学家愿意用数量、可衡量的方
式来描述风险,而公众愿意用定性的方式来看待风险。
就转基因问题而言,科学界的“现有证据认为转基因无害”表述的量化基础难
以转化为公众的定性化的信任。
另一项研究则发现,当转基因领域的科学家们评估公众对转基因的态度时,他
们总是积极评价那些与自己态度一致的公众见解,而且总是赞同那些认知型(
cognitive)的表述,而不是情感性的表达。
2 科学界的转基因传播
科学共同体的行为逻辑与公众及媒体逻辑的差异: 研究发现,近15年来世界主
要英文媒体对转基因问题的报道,总是围绕着转基因事件而起伏,但科学家或
生物技术公司的信息发布总是比这些事件的新闻报道慢了一拍。
2 科学界的转基因传播
多年的心理学研究表明,每天我们都会接触到远远大于注意力容纳能力的大量
信息,我们只会关注那些与自己切实相关的信息。
在绝大多数情况下,转基因科普信息属于那些我们从不关注的信息,直到我们
的注意力被负面报道唤醒。人类认知系统优先处理负面信息,这早已得到了学
术界的公认。
近年来,心理生理学的实验也证明,接受负面信息时,人体各项生理指标活跃
程度远远大于正面和中立信息。
3 媒体的转基因报道
大西洋两岸人们对待转基因的态度迥异: 与媒体报道的差异一致
2003年,英国“转基因国家?”全国性大讨论,但媒体的负面报道让这次讨论得
出了拒绝转基因的民意。
媒体报道转基因的关键词充满了战争、战场、侵占等词语,这可能给人们强烈
的抵制转基因的心理暗示。
但在美国,转基因报道以正面为主。
4 知识、信任与价值的互动
• 研究显示,欧洲公众对转基因的风险意识与他们的知识水平没有相关性。
• 不同类型的知识对受访者觉察到的转基因的风险和收益在统计上也没有显著相关性。
• 每天我们都会接触到远远大于注意力容纳能力的大量信息,我们只会关注那些与自己
切实相关的信息。
• 人类认知系统优先处理负面信息,这早已得到了学术界的公认。
• 受众风险意识的高低与“不可知效应”紧密相关。所谓“不可知效应”就是公众相信,围
绕着转基因还有大量的未知因素。
• 在人们形成对转基因的态度过程中,事实性信息(近似于上述研究中所说的知识)所
发挥的作用,不如价值和情感性信息大。价值和情感成为了筛选事实的认知通道。
4 知识、信任与价值的互动
如果知识水平与转基因接受度没有强相关性,那么究竟是什么导致人们愿意接受?
• 体制性信任(institutional trust),特别是对公共机构的信任(trust in public institutions)
是人们对转基因技术具有较低风险意识和较高接受程度的主要因素。
• 公众对新兴技术的信任与信心意味着他们认可这种技术的合法性。而政府的风险管理
部门当然应该是合法性的主要来源之一。
• 多项研究肯定,信任是预示人们对新技术持积极态度的主要指标之一。
• 在中国,政府信任度与转基因支持度之间显著相关 (黄季焜,2012,数据2002、
2003)。
• 在中国,公众对政府的信任与他们对化工厂的建设的接受和愿意接受蓝藻污染的风险
呈很强的正相关。
4 知识、信任与价值的互动
• 因为公众需要政府和科学家为新技术的安全打包票并管理可能出现的风险。
• 由于在公众认知水平和需要全面理解转基因技术所需要的知识之间总是存在差距,这
样体制性信任就成为填补这一差距的心理手段。
• 2003年的Pew调查显示,83%的美国人相信FDA对转基因安全所做的结论。
• 美国公众在转基因问题上,首先信任科学家、其次是政府、再其次是产业界。 (
2005)
• 在中国,政府信任度与转基因支持度之间显著相关 (黄季焜,2012,数据2002、
2003)。
• 澳大利人10年来对转基因态度变化的研究也表明,对转基因技术的接受度与对科学家
和管理者的信任显著相关 (2014)。
对我国科学传播实践的启示
科学传播体制:
在中国,我们尚没有回答许多基本的问题。例如,科学传播究竟应该在整个的科
技体制中发挥什么作用?传播如何融入科研项目的制定与管理?
科学传播作为供给方不断呈现各种新的形式和新的活动,但活动效果究竟如何衡
量?
什么是适合我国国情的公众参与科学?
反思与批评科学,还是推动更加广泛的参与科学?
对我国科学传播实践的启示
• Challenge of science of science communication:
1. “科学传播的科学”并非为科学传播领域带来了科学的解决方案,而是提示
了一些该领域的一些gap,例如,知识如何(不)改变行为?
2. 科学传播如何不仅仅是传播科学?
3. 与传统的科学传播研究思路不同的是,基于心理学和行为科学的“科学传播
的科学”所遵循的是考察普遍人性或人类认知特点的套路,中国社会的独特
并不必然形成研究问题。
4. 注意力、知识、信任与价值的互动,为我们提出了巨大的挑战,但也可能孕
育着科学传播实践的革命。
5. 个体层面的动态因素与社会体制的结构性因素可以结合。
对我国科学传播实践的启示
Public engagement in science, health and risk management: 相比于国际上公众参与科学
在一定程度上陷入困境或流为buzzword,在中国,这方面的实践和研究刚刚开始,仍然大
有可为。
1. 在这方面,中国的机遇在于,对于公众参与科学而言,非(西方)民主社会的中国社
情如何可能实现公众参与科学, 环境与健康事务。
2. 诸多传统议题,如deficit model和公众参与科学或对话模型之间的关系,都可以在中
国社会中进行独特的考察。
3. 而公众参与科学与“科学传播的科学”的结合不论在国际上还是在中国都将产生巨大
的机遇。
4. 考察和传递政府信任对科学接受度的影响及其程度,是科学传播的重要的待开发领域
。
对我国科学传播实践的启示
• 科学媒体关系
1. 中国科学家是否能从科学传播中获益?是否获益的方式与西方不同?
2. 如果没有获益,又是什么原因能说服科学家从事科学传播?
3. 科学家中的网红是如何炼成的?
4. 如何在自媒体时代发展科学-媒体关系?