Transcript Analysing & Evaluation of Arguments

GXEX1406
Thinking and Communication Skills
Analyzing and
Evaluating Arguments
What is an argument ?
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Forms of discourse that attempt to persuade
readers or listeners to accept a claim,
whether acceptance is based on logical or
emotional appeals or, is usually a case, on
both.
Statement or statements offering support for
a claim.
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Components of argument
Claim
Support / Premise
Statement that is
either true or false.
Must always have a
truth value, i.e. it
must be true or false.
Consists of materials
used by arguer to
convince the claim.
Include evidence &
motivational appeals.
Warrant / Conclusion
An inference / assumption, a belief / principle
that is taken for granted. Allow to make the
connection between support & claim.
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Example
 Claim or not?
 Student in FSKTM like PBL class.
 Please shut the door behind you.
 Support / Premise
 98% of the students in PBL class passed the
exam.
 Warrant / Conclusion
 Most of the student in FSKTM like PBL class.
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The Claim
Fact
Assert that a
condition has
existed, exists
or will exist
based on facts
or data that
objectively
verifiable.
Value
Attempt to
prove that
some things
are more or
less desirable
than others.
GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Policy
Assert that
specific policies
should be
instituted as
solutions to
problems.
E.g. should,
must, ought to,
etc.
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Evaluating Argument
 Should be able to :
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Identify assumptions
Recognize contradictions
Distinguish between fact & opinion
Recognize bias
Distinguish between fact & inference
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Examples

Teaching is rewarding occupation & you only
work until 2.00p.m. It is a suitable profession
for anyone who wants their afternoon free
(assumptions).

MyKad has been produced with the most
secure technology. It has been cloned once
(contradiction).
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Cont..

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Mount Kinabalu is a beautiful mountain
(opinion).
Mount Kinabalu is the highest peak in
Southeast Asia
(fact).
I don’t think teaching in English is good and
practical because my son is not able to
understand what the teacher is talking about
(bias).
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Cont..

You noticed that your friend is loosing weight,
quieter than usual & her face is sunken. When you
asked ‘Are you OK?’, the replies ‘Oh, I’m fine’. It
would be reasonable to conclude:


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She is on diet
Suffering from some disease
On hallucinatory drugs

The conclusions is reasonable but not
factual reports. It is called inferences.
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Reasons for using arguments
Persuading
others
E.g.
She should
marry you
because you
are so good
looking.
Making decisions
E.g.
Being a carpenter,
because you are
good at working
with your hands &
like building
things.
GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Explaining
things
E.g.
You are late for an
important
meeting, and the
boss wants to
know why.
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How to detect an argument
1. Search for
premise &
conclusion
indicator
words.
E.g. Since,
because, for,
follows from,
therefore, thus,
so, it follows
that,
accordingly, etc.
2. Determine if
the purpose of
the words is to
persuade
someone.
GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
3. Make an effort
to understand the
context of the
passage in
question.
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Examples (1)
1)
2)
All Malaysians like badminton. Hafiz is a
Malaysian. So, Hafiz likes badminton.
April 28 is when federal income taxes are
due. So, Malaysians take April 28 seriously.
 So (1)  conclusion indicator.
 So (2)  X conclusion indicator.
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Common Premise indicators
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As shown by
Because
Follows from
For
For the reason that
Given that
Since
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Common conclusion indicators

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Accordingly
Consequently
Hence
In conclusion
It follows that
So
Then
Therefore
Thus
We can conclude that
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Examples (2)
1)
2)
I was late for an appointment because my car
broke down & an accident slowed down the traffic.
I think Bush was the worst person in the 21st
century because he was responsible for the death
of millions of people & because he promoted hate
& violence.
 (1)  explanation
 (2)  arguments
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Examples (3)


Suppose abortion is being discussed & someone
says, “I disagree with you, let me tell you why.” 
means that an argument will be forthcoming.
Suppose you & a friend are trying to figure out
why the economy is doing so well. You ask, “Why
is it doing so well?” & she responds, “How about
the following reasons?”  although she is
offering reasons, she is not trying to persuade
you anything (not arguments).
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Other kinds of Non-Arguments
Descriptions
Reports
E.g.
E.g.
•Dr. Mahathir is a Prime
Minister.
•The dropping of atomic
bombs on the Japanese cities
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
(1945)
•Winters are cold in
Alaska.
•My old brother is 45
years old
•The formation of United
Nations (1945)
•The first human on the moon
(1969)
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•Ajai was a composer
Characteristics of Arguments
One important
principle
Elements of an
arguments.
Standard form for
an argument.
Premise(s) +
Conclusion
1. Premise (1)
2. Premise (2)
:. Conclusion
GXEX1406 Thinking and Communication Skills – Week 9 Analyzing and Evaluating Arguments
Principle of
charity : when
more than one
reading of an
argument is
possible,
interpret the
argument in the
way most
flattering to its
presenter 18
Characteristics of Arguments
(Cont.)
Inductive vs. Deductive arguments
Deductive – premises guarantees the truth of the
conclusion
Inductive – strong argument: truth of the
premises  conclusion probably true. Weak
argument: truth of premises  conclusion
probably not true.
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Examples
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Jorge: Everyone should be a vegetarian.
That’s a claim but not argument. For it to be
argument, make a claim & give some support or
reasons for it.
Jorge: Everyone should be a vegetarian because
my grandmother says so.
 That’s an argument. Made a claim – everyone
should be a vegetarian & offered reason –
grandmother says so – in support of it.
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Cont..
Anyone who is out of food should buy some
more.
2. Lili is out of food.
____________________________
:.
1.
Lili should buy some food
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Cont..
Most (80%) of the people from Singapore
has been infected with SARS.
2. Joe is from Singapore.
_____________________________
:.
1.
Joe has been infected with SARS.
 Inductively strong, conclusions
contradictory; they cannot both be true.
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7 Good argument patterns
Modus Ponens
1.
1.
2.
:.
e.g.
1.
2.
If A, then B.
A.
B.
If I study, then I will pass.
I will study.
:. I will pass.
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Modus Tollens
If A, then B.
2. Not B.
:. Not A.
e.g.
1. If Tamika is healthy, then she’s happy.
2. Tamika is not happy.
1.
:. Tamika is not healthy.
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Disjunctive argument
Either A or B.
2. Not A
:. B
e.g.
1. Either I sleep or eat
2. I am not sleeping
1.
:. I am eating.
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Hypothetical Syllogism
If A, then B.
2. If B, then C.
:. If A, then C.
e.g.
1. If I work, then I’ll get paid.
2. If I get paid, then I’ll be happy.
1.
:. If I work, then I’ll be happy.
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Chain argument
1.
2.
3.
:.
e.g.
1.
2.
3.
A
If A, then B.
If B, then C.
C.
Antoine is short.
If Antoine is short, then Camille won’t date him.
If Camille won’t date him, then Antoine will ask
Donna out.
:. Antoinne will ask Donna out.
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Predicate Instantiation
All A’s are B’s.
2. M is an A.
:. M is a B.
e.g.
1. All carpenters are good at building.
2. Mahmud is a carpenter.
1.
:. Mahmud is good at building.
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Universal Syllogism
All A’s are B’s.
2. All B’s are C’s.
:. All A’s are C’s.
e.g.
1. All whales are mammals.
2. All mammals nurse their young.
1.
:. All whales nurse their young.
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Missing parts of arguments
Implicit Premises
Implicit conclusions
E.g.
1. If Brian is late, then
Gail will be angry.
2. Brian is late.____
:. Gail will be angry.
1. If A, then B.
2. A.____________
:. B. (implicit)
E.g.
1. If Lukes loves Laura, then
he will treat her well.
2. He often does not treat her
well._____________
:. ?
1. If A, then B.
2. Not B._____
:. ?
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Distinguishing Good
Arguments from Bad Ones.
Validity
1. All whales are
mammals
2. All mammals nurse
their young.________
Soundness
If and only if
-It is valid
-All premise are reasonable or
rationally acceptable.
:. All whales nurse their
young.
 Conclusion follows from
the premises. Premises
true + conclusion true =
valid.
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