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论思维方式差异是中美 跨文化传播研究的重要维度 北京大学新闻与传播学院 关世杰 2008.12.27 On the differences of thinking patterns as a key aspect in Sino-American intercultural communication By GUAN Shijie School of Journalism and Communication, Peking University 2008.12.27 跨文化传播学理论中国化是近些年中外学者的 共同呼声。本文认为，在宗教、价值观和语言等 维度之外，思维方式差异是理解中美跨文化传播 问题的另一非常关键的维度。其重要性应引起学 者的充分重视。 To localize the theory of intercultural communication is a common voice among scholars all over the world. Localizing theories of intercultural communication between Chinese and Americans should be an important topic for Chinese researchers. The author of the paper believes that differences of thinking patterns just like religion and values should be a key aspect in the SinoAmerican intercultural communication. 一. 思维方式差异及对传播的影响 未引起足够重视 The differences of thinking patterns between Chinese and Americans and its impact on IC are not paid enough attention by scholars. • 1．当今美国跨文化传播学主流教科书中，有关思 维方式差异及对跨文化交流影响的内容很少。 • There is very little description about the differences of thinking patterns and its influence on the IC in the popular textbooks in US. Pub. year Pages on thinking patterns L. A. Samovar, R. E. Communication between Porter & E.R. McDaniel, cultures, 6th edition 2007 2.5 Judith N. Martin & Thomas K. Nakayama 2007 0 Authors Name of textbook Intercultural Communication in Contexts, 4th edition Carley H. Dodd Dynamics of Intercultural Communication, Fifth edition 2007 0 Fred E. Jandt An Introduction to Intercultural Communication 2007 0 Donald W. Klopf & James C. McCroskey Intercultural Communication Encounters 2007 0 William B. Gudykunst and Young Yun Kim Communicating with strangers: An Approach to Intercultural Communication , Third editon 1997 5 pages on logic and reasoning Authors Name of textbook Pub. year Pages on thinking patterns Stella Ting-Toomey & Leeva C. Chung Understanding Intercultural Communication 2005 2.5 Guo-Ming Chen & William J. Starosta Ferment in the Intercultural Field 2003 0 Ting-Toomey Communicating Across Cultures 1999 0 Foundations of Intercultural Communication 1998 2.5 Communicating Effectively with Chinese, 1998 0 William J. Starosta & Guo-Ming Chen Ge Gao and Stella Ting-Toomey 2．欧美跨文化传播理论中思维方式差异尚属空白 There is no IC theory dealing with the relations between thinking patterns and communication. Authors Name of textbook Pub. year Pages on thinking patterns William B. Gudykunst Understanding Intercultural Communication 2005 0 Dan Landis, J. M. Bennett & M. J. Bennett Handbook of Intercultural Training 2004 0 Milton J. Bennett Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication 1998 0 • 3．原因(why) • 思维方式差异及对传播的影响并未引起足 够的重视的最重要原因之一是认为：每个 人都具有同样基本的感知过程。 • Why the differences of thinking patterns are ignored by IC researchers? One of the reasons is that people believe human beings all over the world have the same perceptive process. 二.中美思维方式差异是两种文化的根本差异之一 The differences of Sino-US thinking patterns are one gene of making two cultures different 1.思维方式差异是感知过程中的重要组成部分 Thinking pattern is an important part of perceptional process 在跨文化传播研究中， 常用感知 → 情感 → 行为 来分析交流过程。 perception → feeling → behavior ↓ 信息选择 → 信息处理(思维方式) →价值判断 Electing information →organizing information →valuating information (thinking patterns) • ↓ • 中美文化是有差异的 • There are differences in thinking patterns • between Chinese and Americans 2．思维方式差异是中美文化差异的关键维度之一 Thinking pattern is an important aspect among the differences between Sino-US cultures • （1）对中美思维方式差异的察觉由来已久 • Some people have been aware of the differences of thinking patterns between Chinese and Americans since 1890’s • 来华美国传教士明恩溥在《中国人的特性》 （1890）中，谈到了中 美思维方式差异：中国人“思维紊乱”、“缺乏精确的习惯”。 • Smith, Arthur Henderson mentioned in his book Chinese Charateristic(1890) the differences Chinese and American, who held that Chinese people were lack of logical thinking and the habit of being precise. • • 王国维在《论新学语之输入》文（1905）中说：“抑我国人之特质， 实际的也，通俗的也；西洋人之特质，思辨的也，科学的也，长于抽 象而精于分类，对世界一切有形无形之事物，无往而不用综括 (Generalization)及分析(Specification)之二法，故言语之多，自然之 理也。吾国人之所长，宁在于实践之方面，而于理论之方面则以具体 的知识为满足。至分类之事，则除迫于实践之需要外，殆不欲穷究之 也。 • Wang Guowei said in his article “On importing of new words”(1905) that “the characteristic of our nation is being practical and popular; while that of the westerners is being logical and scientific. They are good at conceptualizing and categorizing, using the two methods of generalization and specification to explain all the things in the world, whether it’s tangible or not. Therefore, it is natural the westerners have a large vocabulary. Our Chinese people are good at doing practice, and are inclined to accept specific knowledge in terms of theory. As for the categorization, the Chinese people would not bother to do that unless to meet the demand of the practice.” • （2）思维差异被近年来的心理学所验证 • The differences of thinking patterns have been testified by psychologists in recent years • 理查德•尼斯贝特、彭凯平侯玉波理查德、 90年代以来的 研究表明：“亚洲人和欧洲人的思维过程在本质上确实存 在巨大差异” • The data suggested that European American organization of the world is based, to a substantial degree, on taxonomic categories, whereas Chinese organization is based more on relationships. These findings are consistent with the view that Westerners reasoning is relatively analytic (including a tendency to focus on categories) and that Chinese reasoning is relatively holistic (including a tendency to focus on relationships). • 概念思维与相关思维的实验： 请回答：鸡、牛、青草中哪两个关系最密 切？ For example, if people are given the triplet cow-cockgrass and asked which two go together, the choice cowcock indicates a taxonomic categorization, whereas cowgrass suggests a thematic categorization. 研究发现,美国学生基本上选择牛和鸡，偏好 概念思维；中国学生基本上选择牛和草，偏好相 关思维。 It has been found that American college students sort out objects primarily on the basis of taxonomic categories, whereas Chinese college students sort out objects primarily on the basis of thematic categories, （3）思维方式在不同文化间差异及对传播影响的程度不同 The degree of thinking patterns’ differences and its influence on IC are different • • 对比两种文化的思维方式是否有差异，会有多种情况： 没有差别、有很小的差别、有较大的差别、有非常大的 差别。 Comparing two cultures’ thinking patterns, we can see 4 kinds of possibility: no difference, a little difference, to middle degree difference, to substantial degree difference. • 若有差别，由于差别大小不同，它们在两 种文化整体差异中所占的地位就不同，可 以呈现出三种主要情况：不重要的（可忽 略的）、比较重要的、非常重要的。 • If there is a difference, as the degree is different, the difference’s influence on IC has 3 situations: neglectable, slightly important, very important. • 例如： • 当今，中国文化中的汉族文化与满族文化相比，在思维方 式上的差异是可以忽略的。 • The differences of thinking patterns between the Han nationality and Manchu in China are neglectable. • 法国文化与美国文化相比，思维方式差异在两种文化差异 中所占的地位是比较重要的。 • The differences of thinking patterns between the French and Americans are slightly important. • 中国文化与美国文化相比，思维方式差异在中美文化差异 中所占的地位是非常重要的。 • The differences of thinking patterns between the French and Americans are very important. • • 季羡林教授曾明确提出，中西思维模式的不同是 中西文化差异的根本原因：”东西文化有同有异。 其间之异，无论如何是否认不了的。我对中西文 化的看法究竟是什么呢？想起来似乎很复杂，说 起来其实很简单。我认为，东西文化差异之根本 原因在于东西方思维模式之不同，东方的思维模 式是综合的，而西方则是分析的。” • Professor Ji Xianlin (a very famous Chinese scholar) believes that the differences of thinking patterns are the fundamental cause breeding the differences between Chinese culture and American one. • （4）中国特色思维方式有似中国文化的基因 • Chinese thinking pattern is like a gene of the culture • 生物学中的基因对生命体的特征传递着信息 • 文化学中的基因对文化体的特征传递着信息 • 中美在综合——分析、形象——抽象、中庸——对立等方 面的思维差异，如同基因体现在区别于西方文化的具有中 国特色文化的方方面面： • For Example, • 中医：Chinese traditional medicine • 京剧：Beijing opera, • 国画：traditional Chinese painting • For example: if you feel sleepless, you can treat it by massaging two points according to Chinese traditional medicine. It is a kind of reflection of holistic thinking pattern. • 对比文化差异中，价值观的差异具有非常重要的 作用，这在跨文化传播学学者们中获得了共识。 学者们常常以集体主义与个人主义标志中国文化 的价值观与美国文化价值观的差异。价值观是影 响跨文化传播中最重要的维度， • Among the cultural differences, the values are a very important dimension. Chinese collectivism and American individualism are key dimensions influencing the Sino-US IC. The Question is as follows: • 思维方式与价值观之间的关系如何呢？谁决定谁？ 是综合思维和分析思维影响了集体主义和个人主 义的价值观念？还是集体主义的价值观和个人主 义的价值观影响了综合思维和分析思维?还是两者 互相影响的？ • What is the relationship between thinking patterns and the values? Which influence which? • Some scholars believe the thinking patterns influence the values. I believe they influence each other at least. 三.思维方式差异影响跨文化传播 Thinking patterns influence the IC （一）中美思维方式上的差异对语言符号传播的影响 The thinking patterns’ influence on the IC by language 1．选词(choosing the word) （1）形容词与名词 • Chinese prefer adjectives, while Americans prefer nouns • 中国人习惯于形象思维，在文章中，为了使文章鲜明、生动，用词 上，特别喜欢用形象词汇。美国人习惯于概念思维，因而在文章中 更喜欢使用名词。 • As Chinese get used to visual thinking pattern, they prefer to use adjectives, whereas American get used to conceptive thinking pattern and they prefer to use nouns. • （2）大概念与小概念 • Big concept and small concept • 由于中国人偏好整体思维，因而喜欢使用的高度概括性的 词汇。美国人喜欢使用低度概括性的词汇。 • As Chinese get used to the holistic thinking pattern and they prefer to use big concept; American get used to the analytic thinking pattern and they prefer to use small concept. • 2. 联词 making new word • Organizing two Chinese characters as a new word according to the thinking patterns. The big concept comes before the smaller concept. • 由于中国人偏好整体思维优先，在由两个 字组成一个新词时，多是体现了“大概念” 到“小概念”的排序。如：大小、高矮、 胖瘦、长短、宽窄、深浅、国家、省市、 年月、分秒等。 • 在排列一系列名词的时候多是从大概念往小概念 排序，而美国人偏好个体思维优先，因而在排列 一系列名词的时候多是从小概念往大概念排序。 例如关于空间、时间、集体与个人（姓名）概念 的一组词都是如此（表1）。 • When many words are linked, Chinese prefer the order from big concepts to small ones, while Americans the other way round, such as time, space and name.(see table 1) Table 1: Arrangement of words 中国方式 Chinese style 美国方式 American style 中国 北京 北京大学 新闻与传 播学院 传播系 space China Beijing, Peking University, Journalism & Communication Department 空间 时间 time Department of Communication, School of Journalism and Communication, Peking University, Beijing, China 现在是2008年12月27日上午9 It is 2 minutes past 9 o’clock a.m.27 December,2008. 点2分。 It is 2008,December,27, a.m. 9 o’clock 2minites. 姓名 关世杰 name Guan Shijie Shijie Guan • • • • 3. 造句 making the sentence （1）比喻句的多少 prefer figurative sentence Chinese like figurative sentences, while Americans dislike redundant figurative sentences. 由于中国人喜欢形象思维和相关思维，因而在造句中更 喜欢使用比喻。美国人喜欢分析和逻辑思维，因而不喜 欢过多使用形象的比喻。 • 段连城在《对外传播学初探》中，曾举了一个充 满比喻句的介绍龙舟会的例子，其中文是：“中 华大地，江河纵横；华夏文化，源远流长…… [然 后才讲到本地，再讲到龙舟节] 轻快的龙舟如银河 流星，瑰丽的彩船似海市蜃楼，两岸那金碧辉煌 的彩楼连成一片水晶宫，是仙境？是梦境？仰视 彩鸽翩飞，低眸漂灯流霓，焰火怒放火树银花， 灯舞回旋千姿百态，气垫船腾起一江春潮，射击 手点破满天彩球，跳伞健儿绽空中花蕾，抢鸭勇 士谱水上凯歌……啊，××城是不夜城，龙舟会 是群英会！” • “The divine land of China had its rivers flowing across; the brilliant culture of China has its root tracing back long… • The lightsome dragon-boats appear on the river as though the stars twinkle in the Milky Way. The richly decorated pleasure boats look like a scene of mirage. The splendid awnings in green and gold chain into a palace of crystal. Is this a fairyland or a mere dream? Looking above, you can see the doves flying about; looking below, you can see the sailing lamps glittering. Crackling are the fireworks, which present you a picture of fiery trees and silver flowers. Circling are the lantern-dancers, who present you with a variation of exquisite manner. Over there, the motorboats are plowing the water, thus a tide stirs up. Over there, the marksmen are shooting to their targets, thus colourful beads whirl around. ... all claim a strong appeal to you. Therefore, we should say: xx city is a city of no night; its Dragon-Boat Festival a gathering of heroes.” • 段连城先生从事中英文翻译工作近40年， 他认为英文翻译还是符合中文原意的，并 无大的问题。但是“一位美国新闻工作者 看后，坦率写出它的评语。他说： 充满了 极度夸张，不仅不知所云，而且令人发 笑。” • “Full of hyperbole”, “I do not know what it means”, “It is ridiculous”, an American Journalist made a comment on it. • （2）流水句与逻辑句 relative relations and logic relations in making sentence • 由于中国人偏好在相关思维、汉语造句如大江流水， 后浪推前浪；英美人喜欢逻辑思维，英语则如参天大树， 枝繁叶茂。 • As Chinese prefer relative reasoning and make sentences by using relative relations. • As Americans prefer logic reasoning and make sentences by using logic relations. • 4．文体style • 爱德华·霍尔提出把不同的语言分成高度依靠上下文关系 的高语境(high context)语言语言，和低度依靠上下文关 系的低语境(low context)语言。 • 我们可以换一个视角去观察，把它与中国人偏好综合思维， 美国人偏好分析思维联系起来看，高、低语境与综合、分 析两种思维偏好密切相关的。从因果关系上看，思维方式 差异是因，语境高低是果。因而，我们可以说，高语境语 言和低语境语言是思维方式差异表现的一种形式。 • E. Hall put forward the concept of “high context” language and “low context” language in 1959. The causality between thinking pattern and high/low context language is that thinking pattern is the cause while the high/low context is the outcome. • 5．新闻报道 News reporting • 当今，尽管在中国新闻写作领域大力学习借鉴美 国新闻写作方法，然而，中国人偏好综合的思维 方式依然对新闻导语、新闻报道整体写作依然有 明显的影响。 • Although Chinese journalists had been learning skills of writing and reporting news since the beginning of 20 century, the Chinese thinking patterns still have a influence on news writing today. • 中国新闻报道的写作喜欢从大→小、从整体到部分、从宏 观到微观、常从“广角镜头”到“特写镜头”描述新闻。 这与美国新闻报道从小事→大事。小中见大，从部分到整 体，从微观到宏观。 常从“特写镜头”到“广角镜头” 来描述新闻形成对照。这集中表现在导语和整体行文方面。 • The Chinese news writing prefers the process from “wide-angle lens” to observe and writing the news, While American news writing prefers the process from “telephoto lens” to observe and write the news. It is reflected in lead and composition of the news. • 我的研究发现:在新闻导语方面，中国的新闻导语 偏好综合，长度平均有70个汉字；英文偏好分析， 平均有50个汉字. • My study shows that: the leads of Chinese news have 70 Chinese characters on average; the leads of American news have 50 Chinese characters(29 English words) on average. • • 在新闻的整体报道方面，冯澍在《从财经新闻比较看 中美文化差异》一文中，以《中国日报》（China Daily） 与《亚洲华尔街日报》（The Wall Street Journal Asia） 2007年部分中国财经新闻报道为例，用文本分析法分析了 两报财经新闻报道的文体特点时指出，中国人写新闻是广 角镜头优先，美国人是长焦镜头优先。 • On the composition of the news, Feng Shu’s comparative study about finance and economics news of China Daily and The Wall Street Journal Asia of 2007 shows that : Chinese news writers prefer to report the news from “wide-angle lens” , while American news writers prefer to report the news from “telephoto lens” . • “中国记者将新闻事件作为一个整体，从全局进行客观的报道和记录、 并建立新闻事件中各因素的联系；但在确保对新闻的总体把握的情况 下，却缺乏对某一个方面‘特别的’提炼和关注……” 强调新闻事件 的完整性，习惯用“广角镜头”将新闻作为一个整体，纳入镜头之内。 美国《华尔街日报》的财经新闻报道“本身就折射出了新闻的‘实证 与分析’的精神，文章并不旨在全面地、整体的展现新闻事件的方方 面面，而是对准事件的某一个方面，用逻辑思维和实证的手段，对其 进行详细的分析，使报道具有深度性，而不一定要面面俱到。 • “ Chinese writers treat the news event as a whole one, reporting and recording the news from comprehensive approach, establishing the relations among varies factors, while lacking the special analysis and description on a special aspect. Chinese writers stress the integrality of the news, getting used to treat news event through the ‘wide-angle lens’” . • The report of The Wall Street Journal Asia reflects the characteristics of analysis and positivism. The news reporters do not want to show every aspect of the news event comprehensively, but focus on one aspect of the event, through the logic and positive means , making an in-depth analysis. Therefore the report is profound and it does not report every aspect of the event.” 四.总结 summing-up • 总之，思维方式差异是中美文化差异的基因，这种差异影 响了中美跨文化传播的整个过程。从思维方式差异入手开 拓研究，应是跨文化传播学中国化的路境之一。 • The differences of thinking patterns are one “gene” of making Sino-US cultures different. The differences influence the whole process of communication. It is a new way to understand the Sino-US IC through the approach of thinking pattern. • 我相信在不远的将来，在分析中美跨文化传播甚至中西跨 文化传播中，思维方式差异应类似价值观维度一样，成为 跨文化传播的一个重要维度。 • I believe that thinking pattern will be a key dimension just as values in Sino-Us IC study in near future.