Transcript Principles of Management

Certification Study Group
Groups and Teams
Groups in Organizations
Definitions
 Group
 Two or more people interacting to accomplish a common
purpose or goal
Groups & Teams in Organizations
Types of Groups
 Functional group

A group created by the organization to accomplish
a number of organizational purposes with an
indefinite time horizon
 Informal or interest group

Created by its members for purposes that may or
may not be relevant to the organization
 Task group

A group created by the organization to accomplish
a relatively narrow range of purposes within a
stated time horizon
Groups and
Teams
in
Organizations
President
Executive
committee
Vice
president
Project
manager
Types of Groups
in Organizations
Cross-functional team
(form of task group)
Project
manager
Functional group
Informal group
Legal
advisor
Project
manager
Vice
president
Vice
president
Teams in Organizations
Definitions
 Team



A group of workers who function as a unit, often with little
or no supervision, to carry out work-related activities
Organizations create teams to give more responsibility to
workers, to empower workers, to allow the organization to
capitalize on the workers’ knowledge and motivation, and to
shed bureaucracy and promote flexibility
Sometimes are called self-managed teams, cross-functional
teams, or high performance teams.
Groups & Teams in Organizations
Types of Teams
 Problem solving team

Comprises knowledge workers who gather to
solve a specific problem, then disband
 Management team

Consists mainly of managers from various
functions, who coordinate work among other
teams
Groups & Teams in Organizations
Types of Teams…continued
 Work team

Responsible for the daily work of the
organization and, when empowered, are
self-managed teams
 Virtual team

Members interact via computer
 Quality circle

Consists of workers and supervisors, who
meet to discuss workplace problems
Groups & Teams in Organizations
Why People Join
 Interpersonal attraction
 People are attracted to one another
 Group activities
 Activities of the group appeal to them
 Group goals
 Group’s goals motivate them
 Need satisfaction
 Satisfies an individual’s need for affiliation
 Instrumental benefits
 Membership provides other benefits
Forming
Members get acquainted
test interpersonal behaviors
Slow
evolution
to next
stage
Stages of
Group
Development
Storming
Members develop group
structure and patterns of
interaction
Burst of
activity
to next
stage
Norming
Members share acceptance
of roles, sense of unity
Slow
evolution
to next
stage
Performing
Members enact roles, direct
effort toward goal attainment
and performance
Stages of Group Development
 Forming includes:


Attempting to define the task and how the task
will be accomplished
Abstract discussions of task-related
concepts/issues, frustrates some members
 Storming includes:


Defensiveness, competition, and factions
Arguing among members, even when they
agree
Stages of Group Development
 Norming includes:
 Establishing and maintaining team ground
rules
 More friendliness and confiding in one
another
 Performing includes:
 Ability of the group/team to prevent or
work through problems
 Close attachment to the team
Stages
of
Group
Develop
ment
Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim
Peterson, Contemporary Management,
Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by
Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with
permission.
Characteristics of Teams

Role

The part an individual plays in
helping the group reach its goals.


Task-specialist—role concentrating on
getting the group’s tasks
accomplished.
Socioemotional role—providing social
and emotional support to others on
the team.
Characteristics of Teams

Role Structures



The set of defined roles and
interrelationships among those
roles that the group or team
members define and accept.
A result of role episodes in which
the expected role is translated and
defined into the enacted role.
Role ambiguity—occurs when the
sent role is unclear.
Characteristics of Teams

The Development of a Role


The first two stages of role development are group
processes as the group members let the individuals
know what is expected of them.
The other two parts are individual processes as the new
group members perceive and enact their roles.
Expected
role
Sent
role
Perceived
role
Enacted
role
Characteristics of Teams

Role Structures

Role conflict—occurs when the messages and cues
comprising the sent role are clear but
contradictory or mutually exclusive.




Interrole conflict is the result of a conflict between roles.
Intrarole conflict is caused by conflicting demands from
different sources.
Intrasender conflict arises when a single source sends
contradictory messages.
Person-role conflict is the discrepancy between role
requirements and an individual’s values, attitudes, and
needs.
Characteristics of Teams

Role Structures


Role ambiguity – When
the sent role is unclear
Role overload—
occurs when role
expectations exceed
an individual’s
capacities.
Characteristics of Teams

Implications

Avoid role ambiguity, conflict, and overload
by:




Having clear and reasonable expectations of
employees.
Sending clear and straightforward role cues.
Taking into account the employee’s other roles
and personal value system.
Recognizing an individual’s
capabilities and limits.
Characteristics of Teams

Behavioral Norms


Norms are standards of behavior that a
group accepts and expects of its members.
Norms define the boundaries between
acceptable and unacceptable behavior.


Norm generalization—the norms of one
group cannot always be generalized
to another group.
Norm variation—norms and their
application vary within a group
or team.
Characteristics of Teams

Behavioral Norms

Norm conformity — individuals conform as
response to:




Group or team pressure to conform to group
behavior.
An initial (ambiguous) stimulus
prompting group behavior.
Individual traits that reflect their
propensity to conform.
The influence of situational
factors (e.g., group size and unanimity).
Characteristics of Teams

Behavioral Norms

Individual responses to norm conformity:



Adopt the norms of the group.
Try to obey the “spirit” of the norms
while retaining individuality.
Socialization

Norm conformity that occurs when
a person makes the transition from
being an outsider to being an insider
in the organization.
Group Cohesiveness
Cohesiveness – The extent to which members are
loyal and committed to the group; the degree of
mutual attractiveness within the group.
Factors increasing
cohesiveness
Factors reducing
cohesiveness
 Intergroup competition
 Personal attraction
 Favorable evaluation
 Agreement on goals
 Interaction
 Group size
 Disagreement on goals
 Intragroup competition
 Domination
 Unpleasant experiences
Characteristics of Teams

Consequences of Cohesiveness
The interaction between cohesiveness and
performance norms
 The best situation is
Moderate
High
high cohesiveness
performance
performance
combined with
high performance

Performance norms
High
Low
Low
Low
performance
Lowest
performance
Cohesiveness
High
Characteristics of Teams

Formal and Informal Leadership

Informal leader



A person who engages in leadership activities
but whose right to do so has not been formally
recognized by the organization or group.
An informal leader, ideally, may also be the
formal leader for the group or he may
supplement the formal leader in fulfilling
leadership roles.
Informal leaders draw on referent or expert
power to establish themselves as leaders.
Characteristics of Teams
(cont’d)

Formal and Informal Leadership

Formal leader


A person who has been elected or designated
to engage in leadership activities by the group
members
A person who has been formally
appointed or recognized by
the organization as the
leader for the group.
Group and Team Decision
Making in Organizations

The most common method of group
and team decision making are:



Interacting groups
Delphi groups
Nominal groups.
Group Decision Making
Advantages
Disadvantages
More information &
knowledge are available
The process takes
longer, so it is more
costly
More alternatives are
likely to be generated
More acceptance of the
final decision is likely
Enhanced communication
of the decision may result
Better decisions
Compromise decisions
due to indecisiveness
may emerge
One person may
dominate the group
Groupthink may occur
Groupthink
A situation that occurs
when a group or team’s
desire for consensus and
cohesiveness overwhelms
its desire to reach the best
possible decision.

Source: Gregory Moorhead, Group &
Organizations Studies (Vol. 7, No. 4), pp.
429-444. Copyright © 1982 by Sage
Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission
of Sage Publications, Inc.
Managing Group and Team
Decision-Making Processes
Promoting the Effectiveness of Group and
Team Decision Making:




Be aware of the pros and
cons of having a group
or team make a decision.
Set deadlines for when
decisions must be made.
Avoid problems with
dominance by managing
group membership.
Hold a follow-up meeting
to recheck the decision.



Have each group
member individually and
critically evaluate all
alternatives.
As a manager, do not
make your position
known too early.
Appoint a group member
to be a “devil’s
advocate.”
Interpersonal and Intergroup
Conflict

The Nature of Conflict

Conflict

A disagreement between two or more
individuals, groups, or organizations.
Interpersonal and Intergroup
Conflict

The Nature of Conflict

There is an optimal level of conflict in an organization:



Too little conflict and the organization becomes complacent and
apathetic, and lacks innovation and underperforms.
Too much conflict creates a dysfunctional organization where
hostility and non-cooperation dominate, and the organization
suffers from low performance.
A moderate level of conflict in an
organization fosters motivation,
creativity, innovation, and initiative
and can raise performance.
Interpersonal and Intergroup
Conflict
The Nature of Organizational Conflict
High
Performance

Low
Low
Optimal level of conflict
Conflict
High
Interpersonal and Intergroup
Conflict

Interpersonal
Conflict




Personality clash
Differing beliefs or
perceptions
Competitiveness
Causes of Conflict

Conflict Between
Organization and
the Environment

Intergroup Conflict



Interdependence
Different goals
Competition for
scarce resources


Conflict with
competition
Conflict with
consumer groups
Conflict with
employees
Causes and Consequences of
Conflict
Source: Van Fleet,
David D., and Tim
Peterson,
Contemporary
Management, Third
Edition. Copyright ©
1994 by Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Used with
permission.
Managing Conflict in
Organizations

Methods for Managing Conflict
Stimulating conflict
Increase competition among individuals and teams
Hire outsiders to shape things up
Change established procedures
Controlling conflict
Expand resource base
Enhance coordination of interdependence
Set supraordinate goals
Match personalities and work habits of employee
Resolving and eliminating conflict
Avoid conflict
Convince conflicting parties to compromise
Bring conflicting parties together to confront and negotiate conflict
Certification Study Group
Communication
Communication
 Communication

The process of transmitting information
from one person to another
 Effective communication

The process of sending a message so that
the message received is as close in
meaning as possible to the message
intended
Managing the Flow of Information
in Organizations
Source: Barney, Jay B. and Ricky W. Griffin, The Management of
Organizations. Copyright © 1992 by Houghton Mifflin
Company. Used with permission.
Information and the Manager
Key Concepts...
 Data

Raw figures and facts reflecting an aspect of
reality
 Information

Data presented in a form that has meaning
 Information Technology (IT)

The resources used by the organization to
manage information to achieve its mission
Characteristics of Information
 Accurate

A valid and reliable reflection of reality
 Timely

Information delivered in time for managerial action
 Complete

Information that tells a complete story, rather than
being incomplete or distorted
 Relevant

Meets the needs and circumstances of the individual
manager
The Communication Process
Noise
Sender
Start
Receiver
2
Encoding
3
Transmission
through channels
4
Decoding
1
Meaning
Noise
5
Meaning
8
Decoding
7
Transmission
through channels
6
Encoding
Receiver
Sender
Noise
The numbers indicate the sequence in which steps take place.
The Communication Process

Steps in the Communication Process





Deciding to transmit a fact, idea, opinion, or other
information to the receiver.
Encoding the meaning into a form appropriate to the
situation.
Transmitting through the appropriate
channel or medium.
Decoding the message back into
a form that has meaning to the
receiver.
“Noise” is anything disrupting the
communication process.
The Communication Process
 Feedback

The receiver becomes the sender and the
sender becomes the receiver. This is
required to verify meaning and complete
the effective communication process
Interpersonal Communication

Oral Communication


Face-to-face conversations, group discussions,
telephone calls, and other situations in which the
spoken word is used to express meaning.
Advantages of oral communication


Promotes prompt feedback and interchange in the form
of verbal questions and responses.
Is easy to use and can be done
with little preparation.
Interpersonal Communication

Oral Communication

Disadvantages of oral communication


Suffers from problems with inaccuracy in
meaning and details.
Leaves no time for thought and consideration
and no permanent record of what was said.
Interpersonal Communication

Written Communication


Memos, letters, reports, notes, email, and
other methods in which the written word is
used to transmit meaning.
Advantages of written communication



Is accurate and leaves a permanent record
of the exchange.
Leaves for thought and consideration,
can be referenced.
Is easy to use and can be done with
little preparation.
Interpersonal Communication

Written Communication Disadvantages
of written communication


Inhibits feedback and interchange due to
burden of
the process of preparing a physical document.
Considerable delay can occur in
clarifying message meanings.
Forms of Communication in
Organizations

Choosing the Right Form

The situation determines the most
appropriate medium


Oral communication and email is preferred for
personal, nonroutine, or high priority
communications.
Formal written communication (e.g., memos,
letters, reports, and notes) are used for
messages that are impersonal, routine, and
lower priority.
Forms of Communication in
Organizations

Communication in Networks and Teams


Communication network—the pattern through
which the members of a group or team
communicate.
Research suggests:


When the group’s task is simple and routine, centralized
networks perform with the greatest efficiency and
accuracy.
When the group’s task is complex and nonroutine,
decentralized networks with open communications that
foster interaction and exchange of relevant information
tend to be most effective.
Forms of Communication
in Organizations

Types of Communication Networks
2
2
3
1
4
1
5
5
1
4
5
Wheel
2
3
Chain
4
2
4
2
Circle
3
2
Y
1
2
3
1
3
5
5
4
All channel
Communication Networks



Wheel – all communication flows through one
central person (i.e., the leader).
The Chain – offers a more even flow of
information among members (although the
two people on each end interact with only
one other person.
The Y – slightly less centralized – two people
are close to the center.
Communication Networks


The Circle – the chain closed in
The All Channel network – The most
decentralized allows a free flow of
information among all group members.
Everyone participates equally.
Organizational Communication

Vertical Communication

Communication that flows up and down the
organization, usually along formal reporting lines.


Upward communication


Takes place between managers and subordinates and
may involve several levels of the organization.
Consists of messages from subordinates to superiors and
is more subject to distortion.
Downward communication

Occurs when information flows down the hierarchy from
superiors to subordinates.
Organizational Communication

Horizontal Communication

Communication that flows laterally within
the organization; involves persons at the
same level of the organization.



Facilitates coordination among independent
units.
Useful in joint problem solving.
Plays a major role in communications among
members of work teams drawn from different
departments.
Vertical and
Horizontal
Communication
Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim
Peterson, Contemporary Management,
Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by
Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with
permission.
Forms of Communication
in Organizations

Formal Communication in Organizations

Follows the official reporting relationships
and/or prescribed channels.
Vertical communication
Horizontal communication
Electronic Communication

Information Technology (IT)

The resources used by the organization to
manage information that it needs to carry
out its mission.
Electronic Communication
 Formal information systems






Transaction-processing systems
Management information systems (MIS)
Decision support systems (DSS)
Executive information systems (EIS)
Intranets
Expert systems
 Personal electronic technology
Formal Information Systems
 Transaction processing system

System designed to handle routine and
recurring transactions
 Management information system
(MIS)

System that gathers more
comprehensive data, organizes it in a
form of value to managers
Formal Information Systems
 Decision support system (DSS)


System that automatically searches for,
manipulates, and summarizes information
needed by managers for specific decisions
Executive Information Systems (EIS)

A quick-reference, easy-access application of
information systems specially designed for
instant access by upper-level managers.
Formal Information Systems

Intranets


Firewall-protected private networks for
internal company use by employees.
Expert Systems

Information systems designed to imitate
the thought process of human experts.
Electronic Communication

Personal Electronic Technology


Technological advances (e.g., fax machines,
cellular telephones, copiers, and personal
computers) have created opportunities for
quickly disseminating and contacting others in
the organization.
Corporate intranets and the Internet
have made possible teleconferences
and the rapid retrieval of information
from all corners of the globe.
Electronic Communication

Personal Electronic Technology

Telecommuting allows people to work at home
and transmit their work to the company by
means of a telephone and a modem.

Disadvantages are the lack of face-to-face contact,
strong personal relationships, falling behind
professionally, and losing out in organizational
politics.
New
Information
Technologies
Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim Peterson,
Contemporary Management, Second Edition.
Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin
Company. Used with permission.
Electronic Communication
 Problems:




Individuals fall behind in their professional field
Persons can be victimized by organizational
policies…cannot protect themselves
Telecommuters miss out on organizational
grapevine
Difficult for organization to build strong culture
without face-to-face interaction
Informal Communication in
Organizations

Informal Communications


May or may not follow official reporting
relationships and/or prescribed organizational
channels and may have nothing to do with official
organizational business.
Common forms of informal
communications are the
grapevine, management
by wandering around, and
nonverbal communication.
Informal Communication in
Organizations
Informal communication
Formal communication
Informal Communication
 Informal Communication is on the rise
in organizations because:


Increase in merger, acquisition, and
takeover activity
Facilities being spread from downtown
areas to suburbs, which results in
employees talking more to each other
Informal Communication in
Organizations

Grapevine – an informal communication
network that can permeate an organization.
The Gossip Chain
One person tells many
The Cluster Chain
Many people tell a few
Source: Adapted from Human Behavior at
Work: Organizational Behavior, Eighth Edition,
by Keith Davis and John W. Newstrom.
Copyright © 1989 by McGraw-Hill. Reprinted
by permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies.
Informal Communication in
Organizations

Management by Wandering Around

Managers keep in touch with what’s going
on by wandering around and talking to
people on all levels in the organization
Informal Communication in
Organizations

Nonverbal Communication

Any communication exchange that does not use
words, or uses words to carry more meaning than
the strict definition of the words themselves.

Much of the content of a message
may be transmitted by facial
expression alone; other
message content is derived
from inflection and tone of
the voice. Only a small portion
of the message content is due to
the words in the message.
Words in
the message
7%
Inflection
and tone
38%
Facial
expression
55%
Informal Communication in
Organizations

Nonverbal Communication

Kinds of nonverbal communication
practiced by managers:


Images—the kinds of words people elect to use
to give emphasis and effect to what they say.
Settings—boundaries, familiarity, home turf
(e.g., office location, size, and furnishings) are
symbols of power and influence how people
choose to communicate in organizations.
Informal Communication in
Organizations

Nonverbal Communication

Kinds of nonverbal communication
practiced by managers:

Body language—how people of different
cultures and backgrounds physically position
themselves and react to the stance and body
movements of others has a strong influence on
communications between individuals.
Barriers to Communication
Individual barriers





Conflicting or inconsistent
cues
Credibility about the
subject
Reluctance to
communicate
Poor listening skills
Predispositions about the
subject
Organizational barriers





Semantics
Status or power
differences
Different perceptions
Noise
Overload
Barriers to
Effective
Communication
Source: Van Fleet, David D., and Tim
Peterson, Contemporary Management,
Third Edition. Copyright © 1994 by
Houghton Mifflin Company. Used with
permission.
More and Less Effective
Listening Skills
More Effective Listening
Less Effective Listening
Stays active, focused
Is passive, laid back
Pays attention
Is easily distracted
Asks questions
Asks no questions
Keeps an open mind
Has preconceptions
Assimilates information
Disregards information
Improving Communication
Effectiveness
Individual skills




Encourage two-way
communication
Be aware of language
and meaning
Be sensitive to sender’s
and receiver’s
perspective
Develop good listening
skills
Organizational skills



Follow up
Regulate information
flow
Understand the
richness of media