Transcript Formation of the First Triumvirate

• After the consulship of Crassus and Pompey Rome
became far more settled both politically and militarily.
Both consuls retired into private life and the senate
was once again able to take up its primary position
within the state.
• The question still remained as to how they would
cope with any future problems. They had placed
themselves in a very dangerous position towards the
end of the 70’s BC and had narrowly avoided paying
a heavy price. Could they avoid doing this again?
• The populares, however, had not been extinguished
as a political force.
• As long as there were enormous benefits to be
gained from holding public office and the competition
remained as fierce and as one sided as it was there
was always going to be number of individuals willing
to use the tribunate to get what they wanted.
• At present we have several well known populares
politicians from the 70’s.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Pompey & Crassus
L Aurelius Cotta (the tribune)
C Aurelius Cotta (the consul of 75)
Cn Sicinius (tribune of 76)
Q Opimius (tribune of 75)
L Quinctius (senator and prominent lawyer)
Julius Caesar (little know senator and lawyer)
• Within ten years 3 of their number had grouped
together to form a political alliance which controlled
the state.
– How did this happen?
The rise of Pompey
• In 67 Gabinius proposed that a man
of consular rank (he almost certainly
meant Pompey) should be sent out to
deal with the pirates that were still
threatening Rome’s corn supply
(Scullard pg 96&97).
– M Antonius had not been very
successful.
• The bill proposed that the commander
should be given imperium infinitum for
three
years
throughout
the
Mediterranean.
• The Optimates naturally opposed it
led by Catulus and Hortensius.
• Interestingly Caesar, who had just returned from
being a quaestor in Spain was one of the main
supports of the bill (although Caesar had already
shown himself to have populares leanings, this is his
first move towards Pompey himself) (for the war
against the pirates see Scullard pg 97&98).
• The following year saw more political intrigue and infighting.
• Lucullus, who was fighting Mithridates in Asia, had
upset the equites by reorganising the financial
arrangements in Asia and was being accused of
prolonging the war for his own good (interestingly
Lucullus while probably an optimates, is being
accused of using populares tactics).
• A tribune Manilius, in 66 BC then proposed that
Pompey, who had defeated the pirates with
exceptional speed, should be assigned the command
against Mithridates.
• Caesar again spoke in favour but Cicero also
supported the action as one that was in tune with
Rome’s traditions pro lege Manilia or De imperio
Pompeii).
• The bill was passed and Pompey went on to defeat
Mithridates over the next three years (Scullard pg 98103).
• What we are seeing here is very different, however,
from what we have seen before. Here we have
tribunes actively seeking out power for an individual.
Pompey’s previous commands had been given to him
by a foolish senate.
• At this point, even if the senate was more cautious, it
is unable to resist the demands of a tribunate backed
by a powerful, famous, wealthy and most importantly
popular individual.
• Pompey, however, was not the only one that
was forging a career for himself.
• Crassus who was Pompey’s consular
colleague also needed to continue building
upon his political power.
• While there was the obvious threat of the
political opponents from within the optimate
camp there was also the increasing threat
from Pompey himself.
– Note how Plutarch in his life of Pompey mentions
how they didn’t get on during their consulship.
• In doing so Crassus needed a group of
supporters himself to counter Pompey’s
increasing influence and patronage. (Scullard
pg 105)
Caesar and Crassus
•
•
•
•
Crassus and Caesar were natural
political allies if not natural friends.
Caesar had already made a bit of a
name for himself in the law courts
and by supporting various bits of
legislation that were of a populares
nature (Scullard pg 95&96).
Crassus on the other hand had the
influence and, perhaps more
importantly, the wealth to promote
his own interests as well as those of
others (including Caesar).
With Pompey away (from 67
onwards) Crassus began to involve
himself more actively in Roman
politics for his own interests.
– The problem in Roman politics
is that from now on individuals
are playing politics for their own
interests against those of the
state.
Gossip and Scandal
•
•
•
•
•
•
Crassus’ initial steps were tentative
although certainly showed his openly
populares character.
Crassus was almost certainly involved in
the Catilinarian conspiracy, which began
in 65 BC, in with wealth, influence and
troops if necessary. Crassus needed to
counter balance this.
some shape or form although was
certainly in the background to a greater
extent than Caesar. (Scullard pg 108-110)
Crassus, however, need more practical
bargaining chips if he was to oppose
Pompey in the future.
His first step was to gain a wider client
base, in particular in the provinces.
If Pompey was successful in the East
then he would certainly return with an
incredibly wide client base that would
provide him
Crassus in Spain, Gaul and Egypt
• Caesar had already had contact with Spain and
Gaul.
– He had been quaestor in Spain 68/7 and had proposed that
the Transpadane Gauls should receive citizenship the year
after.
• Spain: Initially Crassus arranged through his
patronage to have Calpurnius Piso sent tp Spain as
quaestor propraetore.
• Unfortunately he was killed soon after his arrival.
• Gaul: Crassus, as Censor, then proposed that the
transpandane Gauls should once more receive full
citizenship.
• Opposed by his optimate colleague Catulus the
measure was not carried but he would certainly
have gained their support (Scullard pg 104).
• Egypt: At some point around 65/4 BC Crassus then
used a tribune who proposed the annexation of Egypt
with the supposed intention of sending Caesar out to
administer the process.
– Egypt would have provided an even better military base
against Pompey but would more importantly put Crassus in
control of a vast supply of corn with which he could bribe the
masses and win over the equites.
• The Optimates naturally opposed the measure and
Cicero, who was still representing Pompey’s
interests, spoke against the measure and was no
doubt instrumental in its defeat.
• Crassus, despite being thwarted at every step buy
the optimates, continued to try and gain more power
and influence. This time, however, the steps he takes
are more linked to the threat of Pompey than the
threat of the optimates
• Upon Pompey’s return from the East he would need
to get land to settle his veterans. This was important
if he was to be able to use them as clients in the
future.
• Crassus knew this and in 64 through the tribune
Rullus proposed an agrarian bill which was to set up
a commission of ten (a decemviri) to buy up land and
establish colonies for a period of 5 years.
• The agrarian bill would also be popular with the
unemployed people of Rome who no doubt hoped to
gain increased access to corn if not the land itself.
• Either way Crassus hoped to gain an important
political bargaining tool in the event of Pompey’s
return.
• Once again Cicero spoke against the measure and
Rullus withdrew the measure. Crassus had been
thwarted again.
• Caesar was also increasingly active.
• As Aedile of 65 he had stage magnificent games (no
doubt with the help of Caesar’s money).
• He also gained the post of Pontifex Maximus (again
almost certainly with the help of Crassus)
• Caesar was also active in the law courts prosecuting
a number of optimates (although he was defeated by
Cicero he would have gained some popular support)
(Scullard pg 108).
• So far both Crassus and Caesar have formed the
bulwark of the populares faction largely on the basis
that the optimate faction have opposed their
measures.
• It is important to remember, however, that this is not
an ideological battle but one concerning the control of
power.
The return of Pompey
• With the Catilinarian conspiracy coming to an end
Pompey, who was drawing things to a close in the
East, began to look after his interests in Rome.
• A tribune Nepos, acting for Pompey, proposed that
Pompey should be summoned back to tackle Catiline
and to be able to stand for the consulship in absentia.
• Nepos was opposed by other tribunes and despite
rioting in Rome in favour of the bill the senate passed
a senatus consultum ultimum and the bill was
thwarted.
• By the end of 62 with Pompey’s return the political
situation in Rome was in the balance.
• Cicero was hoping that he could draw the factions of
Rome together, events were to prove otherwise.
• Pompey was in a position to take control in Rome in the mode of
Sulla but while Rome waited in anticipation Pompey merely
disbanded his troops and returned to Rome as a private citizen.
• The senate now had a chance to settle the delicate situation in
Rome instead they managed to push the populares Pompey,
Crassus and Caesar closer together.
• Crassus was once again thwarted by the optimates when he
proposed that a harsh tax bargain should be redrafted.
– Although a fairly bold request it was not completely unreasonable
but would certainly have cemented Crassus’ popularity with the
equites.
• Pompey, at this point, was still essentially on the side of
republican government. If not totally committed to the Optimates
he was by no means a populares either.
Pompey turns populares
• Pompey’s position was about to change and the
cause can be found with the attitude and actions of
the small optimates faction within the senate itself.
• Firstly Pompey was rejected by Cato (a prominent
optimate) when he suggested that he should marry
one of his relations.
– One needs to remember that marriages in the upper
echelons of Roman society was the standard way of
cementing political alliances.
• Then his proposed eastern settlement wasn’t ratified
by the senate neither did the senate agree to provide
land for his veterans.
• Essentially his requests weren’t unreasonable but
would certainly have consolidated his power if not
actually give him anymore.
• The senate, however, were far too enthusiastic in
their attempts to protect their own interests at the
expense of Pompey’s.
• However, the political climate in Rome and the battle
that had been brewing between individuals in Rome
(Pompey and Crassus [with Caesar]) meant Pompey
was always going to resist their attacks and defend
his own interests.
• Pompey therefore turned to a tribune Flavius to
propose al and bill that would settle his veterans.
• Although there was some senatorial opposition the
bill was eventually passed but the senate’s opposition
had shown Pompey that the senate was not
necessarily on his side and had forced him to take
populares measures.
• Despite Pompey’s turn to the populares the senate
continued in the defence of their own vested
interests.
• Caesar was also returning to Rome in the 60BC
having been governor in Spain the previous year.
• He was due a triumph but also wanted to stand for
the consulship of 59 BC but as a commander of an
army he wasn’t allowed to enter the city until the day
of his triumph.
• He consequently asked the senate to be allowed to
stand for the consulship in absentia.
• This was not unprecedented but considering
Caesar’s previous career it is not surprising that the
senate declined his request.
• Their decision, however, was short-sighted and
naturally drove Caesar, Crassus and Pompey closer
together to the extent that in 60 BC the three formed
a secret amicitia to work for their mutual interests.
An Alliance of Vested Interests
•
•
•
Together the three had the support
of:
– The Equites (Crassus)
– The urban populace (Caesar
and Pompey)
– Military backing (Pompey)
As such they could impose their will
on the senate as they wished.
To achieve their aims they needed
someone with actual political power
so Caesar finally got his wish of the
consulship and was duly elected to
the post of 59BC.
“ A conspiracy against the state by its
three leading citizens”. Livy