Transcript The Second Triumvirate

An unstable equilibrium of
conflicting elements
Triumviri respublicae Constitendua
The Period from 44BC- 31BC
 Formation
and breakdown of
the Second Triumvirate; power
vacuum left by Caesar’s death, candidates
for power, Senate response, fate of the
assassins
 Role
of Significant individuals;
Octavian , Antony, Cicero,
Cleopatra, Fulvia and Octavia
 Civil War; Battle of Mutina, Philippi,
Perusine, Naulochas and Actium
Sources for the period
An Augustan filter!!!!!!!!
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Plutarch’s Lives of Antony and
Brutus
Appian’s Civil Wars
Cicero’s “ Philippics”
Suetonius’ Life of Augustus
Cary, A History of Rome
Scullard, From the Gracchi to
Nero
THE TRIUMVIRAL PERIOD IN THE SHADOW OF AUGUSTAN
PROPAGANDA
“ He took as his starting point the aftermath of the dictator
Caesar’s murder but moved on to a later period and began with
the end of the civil war, realizing that to give a frank account of
what happened before was not an option for him” Suetonius
Claudius
“ To state the truth about Octavian’s rise to power threatened to
undermine everything he had achieved.” Osgood Caesar’s legacy
Roman Imperatorial Issues
71 - 27 bc
Gnaeus Pompeius
Magnus
Caius Julius Caesar
Pompey [b. 106 bc] was one
Caesar [b. 100 bc] joined
of Rome's greatest generals. Crassus and Pompey in the
After conquering much of
first Triumvirate, then
Asia Minor, he joined
conquered Gaul in a series of
Caesar and Crassus in the
brilliant campaigns. He next
first Triumvirate, then
brought his army into Italy
opposed Caesar in the Civil [49 b.c.], starting a civil war
War and was defeated at
from which he emerged
Pharsalus. He fled to Egypt master of the Roman world.
where he was assassinated
He was assassinated on the
in 48 bc.
Ides of March, 44 bc
Relatives depicted on coins:
Gnaeus Pompey jr. - son
Sextus Pompey - son
Marcus Junius Brutus
Marcus Antonius
Brutus [b. 85 bc], a wealthy
Antony [b. 83 bc]was Caesar's
aristocrat, supported Pompey
trusted subordinate and ally.
but was pardoned by Caesar.
After the assassination he
Despite this he led the plot to
joined Octavian and Lepidus,
assassinate Caesar. He joined winning the battle of Philippi.
Cassius in command of the
He and Octavian divided the
Republican forces, and was
Roman world until they fought
defeated by Antony and
and Antony lost at Actium. He
Octavian at Philippi, after
fled to Egypt, taking own life in
which he took his own life [42
30 bc.
bc]
Relatives depicted on coins:
Caius Antonius, Lucius
Antonius - brothers
Octavia - wife
Mark Antony Jr. - son
Cleopatra - paramour
Caius Julius Caesar
Octavianus
Caesar's great-nephew,
Octavian [b. 63 bc]
gained control of the
Caesarian faction in
Rome after Caesar's
assassination, then
allied himself with
Antony and Lepidus.
After the battle of
Philippi, he and Antony
divided the Roman
world, then came into
collision. Octavian's
forces defeated Antony
at Actium [31 bc]. A
grateful Senate awarded
him the honorific
'Augustus' in 27 bc,
marking the beginning
of the Roman
EmpireRelatives
depicted on coins:
Livia - wife; Agrippa son-in-law;
Julia - daughter;
Grandchildren: Caius
and Lucius; Agrippa
Postumus
Coins of the First Century BC
Numismatics and self
representation
The number and variety of coins minted during the period
testifies to the intense political competition
Landless Roman Peasants
Italian Allies
- Served in the armies that
had won an empire
- Wanted farmland and a minimum
standard of living
- Served in the armies that
had won an empire
- Wanted citizenship and equal
Treatment
Senate
- Intense rivalries
-Jealously protected
privileges and power
-Did not address needs for
reform
Roman Plebs
Equites
- Laborers and poor of the capital
- Access to grain and bread at
affordable prices
- Wealthy and distinguished non-senators
- Wanted honors and recognition and did
not want senators to look down on them
The Power Vacuum
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The legacy of Julius Caesar’s death was the political
vacuum that was left after the Ides of March.
Caesar’s series of dictatorships and the many titles and
honors granted by the Senate had effectively dismantled
the mechanism of government. Free elections had not
been held since 49BC, rather they were mostly by
appointment.
Whoever was to fill the vacuum would need wealth and a
loyal army.
“ So now I see it was folly to be consoled by the Ides of
March; for though our courage was that of men, we had no
more sense than children. We have only cut down the tree,
not rooted it up.”
Cicero to Atticus
Augustus
David Shotter
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“Caesar's assassination on the Ides (15th) of March,
44 BC threw into turmoil the plans and feelings of his
adoptive son. No less was the turmoil that descended
upon the Republic, for Caesar's murderers, led by
Marcus Brutus and Cassius, apparently had no plans
for the future other than believing that the death of
the tyrant would automatically lead to the restoration
of the Republic. In practice, this meant little more
than that the nobility would be free to resume their
self-indulgent pursuit of wealth, honour and glory.
Such freedom had little to offer those left on the
margins-the equestrians, the people, the legions and
the provincials.”
Octavian and Antony
Heirs apparent?
As individuals what do they have and what do they
lack to take up the mantle of Caesar?
OCTAVIAN
Sources of power
NAME OF CAESAR:
Patrician birth
Clientale
Loyal army
Wealth?
MARK ANTONY
SOURCES OF POWER
•In possession of Caesar’s will
•Consul for 44BC
•Loyalty of veterans from
•the Gallic and Civil War
PERSONAL QUALITIES
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“Antony grew up a very beautiful youth, but,
by the worst of misfortunes, he fell into the
acquaintance and friendship of Curio, a man
abandoned to his pleasures; who, to make
Antony’s dependence upon him a matter of
greater necessity, plunged him into a life of
drinking and dissipation, and led him through
a course of such extravagance, that he ran, at
that early age, into debt to the amount of two
hundred and fifty talents. …. After this, for
some short time, he took part with Clodius, the
most insolent and outrageous demagogue of
the time, in his course of violence and
disorder;”
Antony
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“He had also a very good and noble appearance; his beard was
well grown, his forehead large, and his nose aquiline, giving him
altogether a bold, masculine look, that reminded people of the
faces of Hercules in paintings and sculptures. It was, moreover,
an ancient tradition, that the Antonys were descended from
Hercules .. For, whenever he had to appear before large numbers,
he wore his tunic girt low about the hips, a broadsword on his
side, and over all a large, coarse mantle. What might seem to
some very insupportable, his vaunting, his raillery, his drinking in
public, sitting down by the men as they were taking their food,
and eating, as he stood, off the common soldiers’ tables, made
him the delight and pleasure of the army. In love affairs, also, he
was very agreeable; he gained many friends by the assistance he
gave them in theirs, and took other people’s raillery upon his own
with good-humor. And his generous ways, his open and lavish
hand in gifts and favors to his friends and fellow-soldiers, did a
great deal for him in his first advance to power,”
Octavian
Nicholas of Damascus
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“First I shall speak of his birth and breeding, his parents his nurture and
education from infancy, by means of which he came to such an estate.
His father was Gaius Octavius, a man of senatorial rank. His forbears,
renowned for both wealth and justice, left their estates to him, an orphan, at
their death. His guardians spent his money, but he remitting his just claims
was satisfied with the remainder.
: Octavius, at the age of about nine [twelve?] years, was an object of no little
admiration to the Romans, exhibiting as he did great excellence of nature,
young though he was; for he gave an oration before a large crowd and
received much applause from grown men. After his grandmother's death he
was brought up by his mother Atia and her husband Lucius Philippus, who
was a descendant of the conquerors Philip of Macedonia
Octavius lived soberly and in moderation; his friends know of something else
about him that was remarkable. For an entire year at the very age at which
youths, particularly those with wealth, are most wanton, he abstained from
sexual gratification out of regard for both his voice and his strength.”
After Caesar’s death
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“This was the beginning of good both for himself and all mankind, but
especially for the state and the entire Roman people. He sent
immediately to Asia for the money and means that Caesar had previously
dispatched for the Parthian War, and when he received it along with a
year's tribute from the people of Asia, contenting himself with the
portion that had belonged to Caesar he turned the public property over
to the state treasury. At that time, too, some of his friends urged him as
they had at Apollonia to go to Caesar's colonies and to levy an army,
inducing the men to join an expedition on his behalf by employing the
prestige of the great name of Caesar. They declared that the soldiers
would gladly follow the leadership of Caesar's son and would do
everything for him; for there persisted among them a wonderful loyalty
and good will toward Caesar and a memory of what they had
accomplished with him in his lifetime, and they desired under the
auspices of Caesar's name to win the power which they had formerly
bestowed upon Caesar. However, the opportunity for this did not seem to
be at hand. He therefore turned his attention toward seeking legally,
through a senatorial decree, the dignity his father had held; and he was
careful not to acquire the reputation of being one who was ambitious
and not a law abiding man.”
Stage 1:
Maneuvering
(44-43 BCE)
Antony’s problems?
Sympathetic to both sides
Competition of Octavian and Lepidus
Hostile Senate
Octavian’s Problems
Magistracy
Money?
Revenge.
Alliances; Optimate or Populare?
Antony’s Actions
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After the assassination of Caesar on March 15, 44 BC, Antony was
apparantly surprised to find that he wasn't a target. Though some speculate
that he may have been at least distantly involved in the plot, his behaviour
after the murder suggests otherwise.
After reconciling, at least in theory, with Caesar's assassins, and perhaps
fearing the loss of power, Antony used Caesar's funeral oration as the
catalyst that would once more plunge Rome into civil war.
At this point, he used brute force and Caesar's massive public popularity to
position himself at the top of the Roman political ladder.
By late in 44 BC, Antony pushed through several laws, scattering the
assassins throughout the provinces, and used his command of Caesar's
former legions to maintain control.
Antony procured the Gallic provinces for himself, and planned to take his
army against Decimus Brutus, one of Caesar's assassins, who was
assigned as governor there previously.
Cicero, the power broker, positions
himself
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“ Atticus I fear the Ides of March have brought us
nothing except joy and a satisfaction for our hatred
and grief…..Twas a fine deed, but half done….Well
here is Antony posting up( in return for a massive
bribe) a law allegedly carried by the Dictator in the
Assembly under which the Sicilians become Roman
citizens, a thing never mentioned in his
lifetime!...Octavius is here with me-most respectful
and friendly. His followers call him Caesar, but
Plilippus does not, so neither do I. My judgement is
that he cannot be a good citizen. There are too
many around him. They threaten death to our
friends( the assassins) and call the present state of
things intolerable.” April 44BC
Cicero to the Senate
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“ Look at young Gaius Caesar-he’s scarcely
more than a lad but he has raised a devoted
army of those veterans of Caesar’s who have
never known defeat…His is an astonishing, I
might say superhuman ,quality of mind and
spirit…we must give him our formal support,
so that his defence of the res publica may be
not just his own private enterprise but a
commision from us.” January 43BC
Octavians immediate goals
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“ If he were to ignore the inheritance and
the adoption, he would be betraying Caesar
and doing a wrong to the people over the
distribution of money to them. As he
finished speaking, he burst out with the
assertion that it was right for him, not
simply to put himself in danger, but
actually to die, if when Caesar had chosen
him above everyone else for such a great
role, he was to show himself worthy..”
Appian
SENATE Actions
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The Senate, and Cicero in particular all viewed Antony
as the greatest threat to Republican liberty, and he
began a campaign of disgracing Antony through the
use of his vaunted rhetoric.
Viewing Octavian as a tool to be manipulated, the
Senate accepted him as a counterforce to Antony's
strength and legitimized his command, despite its
illegal beginnings.
By the close of 44 BC, the various factions continued
to shore up their military positions, and war was once
again on the horizon
Caesar’s Apotheosis
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In July of 44 B.C., a comet appeared during the games that
Octavian was holding in honour of Julius Caesar. For some
Romans, the comet known today from a verse of Horace‟s
Odes as the sidus Iulium was an omen sent by the gods to
announce the deification of Caesar.13 This interpretation
also made the comet a confirmation of the fact that Octavian
was divi Filius, the son of a god
What’s in a Name ??????
C. OctaviusC
. Julius
Caesar
Octavianus,
Imperator Caesar
divi f. Augustus
Master of propaganda
The Deeds of the Divine Augustus
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What were Octavian’s goals?
How does hindsight affect reliability?
Compare the styles of writing between Caesar and
Augustus?
“1. In my nineteenth year, on my own initiative and at my own
expense, I raised an army with which I set free the state, which
was oppressed by the domination of a faction. For that reason,
the senate enrolled me in its order by laudatory resolutions, when
Gaius Pansa and Aulus Hirtius were consuls (43 B.C.E.),
assigning me the place of a consul in the giving of opinions, and
gave me the imperium. With me as propraetor, it ordered me,
together with the consuls, to take care lest any detriment befall
the state. But the people made me consul in the same year, when
the consuls each perished in battle, and they made me a triumvir
for the settling of the state.
2. I drove the men who slaughtered my father into exile with a
legal order, punishing their crime, and afterwards, when they
waged war on the state, I conquered them in two battles.”
Cicero finds a vitriolic voice
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“In that man were combined genius, method, memory, literature,
prudence, deliberation, and industry. He had performed exploits in war
which, though calamitous for the republic, were nevertheless mighty
deeds. Having for many years aimed at being a king, he had with great
labor, and much personal danger, accomplished what he intended. He had
conciliated the ignorant multitude by presents, by monuments, by
largesses of food, and by banquets; he had bound his own party to him by
rewards, his adversaries by the appearances of clemency. Why need I say
much on such a subject? He had already brought a free city, partly by fear,
partly by patience, into a habit of slavery.
With him I can, indeed, compare you as to your desire to reign; but in all
other respects you are in no degree to be compared to him. But from the
many evils which by him have been burned into the republic, there is still
this good, that the Roman people has now learned how much to believe
every one, to whom to trust itself, and against whom to guard. Do you
never think on these things? And do you not understand that it is enough
for brave men to have learned how noble a thing it is as to the act, how
grateful it is as to the benefit done, how glorious as to the fame acquired,
to slay a tyrant? [118] When men could not bear him, do you think they
will bear you? Believe me, the time will come when men will race with one
another to do this deed, and when no one will wait for the tardy arrival of
an opportunity.”
2nd Philippic
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“To other men the republic now seemed established, but
it did not appear so at all to me, as I was afraid of every
sort of shipwreck, as long as you were at the helm.
Have I been deceived? or, was it possible for that man
long to continue unlike himself? While you were all
looking on, documents were fixed up over the whole
Capitol, and exemptions were being sold, not merely to
individuals, but to entire states. The freedom of the city
was also being given now not to single persons only, but
to whole provinces. Therefore, if these acts are to
stand,--and stand they can not if the republic stands
too,--then, O conscript fathers, you have lost whole
provinces; and not the revenues only, but the actual
empire of the Roman people has been diminished by a
market this man held in his own house.”
Cicero’s Philippics
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“ Some 20th century historians have detected
fanaticism and obsession in Cicero at this
time, especially so far as his loathing of
Antony is concerned. . One certainly senses a
coarsening of his personality….This was the
price Cicero was to pay for his return to
power. Although he held no public office, the
next 6 months saw him become the first man
in Rome, with as a great a domination over the
political scene as during his first Consulship.”
Everitt Cicero
The situation in 43BC ( see handout )
“ unstable equilibrium of conflicting elements’
Brutus and Cassius are
In Syria and
Macedonia
(provinces granted by
Senate)
Using them to gather troops
Cicero leads the Senate
against
Antony
Antony declared an outlaw, deprives
Decimus Brutus of Gallic province.
Brutus refuses and Antony
Octavian rebuffed by Antony
Appeals to Caesar’s veterans in
Campania and
raises two legions
lays seige
Mutina
Octavian defeats Antony’s
legions and two consuls
Are killed
Antony escapes
Senate Miscalculation
DEJA VU
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Assuming that they were now free of the risk of Antony the Senate
attempted to discard Octavian. Decimus Brutus was awarded a triumph
and major command and supreme command of the Eastern provinces was
given to Brutus and Cassius
Octavian realized that if Antony was defeated his fathers assassins would
rule Rome
Octavian refuses to aid Decimus Brutus against Antony and he is killed.
Octavian sends troops to Rome demanding a Consulship
When this was resisted Octavian marched on Rome with
his legions, seized the treasury in order to pay his troops
and made arrangements for Consular elections
Octavian and his cousin Quintus Pedius were elected.
They revoked the decree outlawing Antony and set up a
court to try the assassins. They were found guilty in their
absence
Octavian was only 19 years old
Ancient Sources
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“Octavian and Antony composed their differences on
a small islet in the river Lavinius, near the city of
Mutina. Each had five legions of soldiers whom they
stationed opposite each other… Lepidus by himself
went before them, searching the island, and waved
his military cloak as a signal to them to come.”
Appian
What does this passage reveal about the relative
roles of the three men?
Ancient Sources
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“ This triumvirate was very hateful to the Romans and
Antony most of all bore the blame, because he was
older than Caesar and had greater authority than
Lepidus, and withal he was no sooner settled in his
affairs but he turned to his luxurious and dissolute
ways “ Plutarch
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“ But upon intelligence that Antony , after his defeat,
had been received by Marcus Lepidus, and that the
rest of the generals and armies had all declared for
the Senate, he , without any hesitation, deserted from
the part of nobles; alleging as an excuse for his
conduct the actions and sayings of several amongst
them.” Suetonius
Modern Sources
“ The Triumvirate of Antony , Lepidus and
Octavian was to an even greater extent than the
partnership of Pompey Caesar and Crassus, an
unstable equilibrium of conflicting elements.”
 “ The best that can be said of the Second
Triumvirate is that it was too bad to last. It was
ruinously wasteful in men and wealth and it rested
on nothing firmer than a precarious balance of
essentially antagonistic ambitions .” Cary- A History of
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Rome.
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“Unlike the first Triumvirate, which was merely a
private agreement between Pompey ,Caesar and
Crassus…the Second Triumvirate was a formal
magistracy legally appointed which could dominate
the Senate and the State.” Scullard
David Shotter
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“Unlike the essentially private triumvirate
of Pompey, Caesar and Crassus in 60 BC,
this Second Triumvirate was formally agreed
upon and given the legal status to act as the
government of Rome and the Empire. But
despite its high-sounding purpose-to heal
the Republic's afflictions-its real aim was
the service of personal and factional
ambition”
Reasons for its Formation
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The Second Triumvirate came into
existence in 43BC by means of a
tribunes law proposed by P Titius. The
purpose of the alliance was officially to
set the state in order and to defeat the
Republican armies of Brutus and
Cassius. Unofficially the Triumvirate was
a means by which three men in
command of large armies could pursue
their individual aims in defiance of the
Senate. The actions of the Triumvirate
reflect the reasons for its formation.
Actions of the Triumvirate
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Octavian to resign his consulship and Ventidius should take
it for the rest of the year
A new magistracy of Antony ,Octavian and Lepidus should
hold for five years with consular power
That these three should designate the yearly magistrates
That a distribution of the provinces should be made,
giving Antony the whole of Gaul, Spain was given to
Lepidus while Octavian was to have Africa, Sardinia, and
Sicily
Only the assignments beyond the Adriatic were postponed
as these were controlled by Brutus and Cassius
Lepidus was to be consul the following year and retain 3
legions….and the other legions divided between Octavian
and Antony so that each would have twenty legions to lead
to war.
To encourage the army with expectation of booty, they
promised them eighteen cities of Italy…as though they had
been captured from an enemy in war.
TRIUMVIRATE AND SENATE
AUTONOMY???????
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“No body would argue that the formal exercise of
their traditional functions by the Senate And people
demonstrates the continuance of the free play of
politics….the evidence does seem to indicate that
the institutions of the res publica persisted through
the Triumviral period. Moreover the Triumvirs
themselves made repeated promises to restore
effective power to Republican institutions and
showed considerable concern to have their actions
formally approved by the traditional organs of the
state. This intermingling of the exercise of individual
power and influence of the Republican institution
comes out very clearly in this period.”
The Roman Republic and the Augustan Revolution
Fergus Miller
The final carve of the Empire
Treaty of Brundisium
Proscriptions
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The purpose of the proscriptions was to confiscate
estates in order to have money and land for their
troops, and to destroy their enemies. Caesar had
shown that clemency did not pay.
They resulted in the death of 300 Senators and
2000 equites , including Cicero. See Appian
Those Republicans that managed to escape joined
Sextus Pompey
Read Appian for the ill omens seen in Rome
130+ senators (Livy)
200 senators + 2000 equites (Appian)
300 senators + 3000 equites (Plutarch)
Only one ex-consul known (Cicero), out of nearly
100 known names
Death of a “learned man and a lover
of his country”
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"Cicero heard [his pursuers] coming and ordered his servants to
set the litter [in which he was being carried] down where they
were. He…looked steadfastly at his murderers. He was all
covered in dust; his hair was long and disordered, and his face
was pinched and wasted with his anxieties - so that most of those
who stood by covered their faces while Herennius was killing
him. His throat was cut as he stretched his neck out from the
litter….By Antony's orders Herennius cut off his head and his
hands.” Plutarch
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Antony then had Cicero's head and hands nailed to the
speaker's podium in the Senate as a warning to others.
Cicero's son, also named Marcus, who was in Greece at
this time, was not executed. He became consul in 30 BC
under Octavian, who had defeated Antony after the
Second Triumvirate collapsed. As consul, the younger
Marcus got to announce Antony's suicide to the Senate.
It is unfortunate that we have no record of this speech.
Stage 2;
Elimination of
Rivals
AN UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM OF CONFLICTING ELEMENTS
Antony &
Octavian
Battle of
Philippi 42BC
Brutus &
Cassius
Octavian
The Perusine
War41BC
Lucius
Antonius &
Fulvia
Antony
Battle of
Naulochus36BC
Octavian
Battle of Actium
31BC
Sextus Pompey
Antony &
Cleopatra
Octavian in the West and
Antony in the East
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See handout
OCTAVIAN
ANTONY
“Such being his temper, the last and crowning mischief that could
befall him came in the love of Cleopatra, to awaken and kindle to fury
passions that as yet lay still and dormant in his nature, and to stifle
and finally corrupt any elements that yet made resistance in him of
goodness and a sound judgment. He fell into the snare thus.
”
Women and Power: the making and
breaking of Amicitae
“Antony was so captivated by her that, while Fulvia his wife
maintained his quarrels in Rome against Caesar by actual force of
arms,
 Caesar had an elder sister, not of the whole blood, for Attia was his
mother's name, hers Ancharia. This sister, Octavia, he was extremely
attached to, as indeed she was, it is said, quite a wonder of a woman.
 "I shall be miserable," said she, "without redress; for on what side
soever victory falls, I shall be sure to be a loser." Caesar was
overcome by these entreaties, and advanced in a peaceable temper to
Tarentum, where those that were present beheld a most stately
spectacle; a vast army the up by the shore, and as great a fleet in the
harbour, all without the occurrence of friends, and other expressions of
joy and kindness, passing from one armament to the other. Antony first
entertained Caesar, this also being a concession on Caesar's part to
his sister; and when at length an agreement was made between them,
that Caesar should give Antony two of his legions to serve him in the
Parthian war, and that Antony should in return leave with him a
hundred armed galleys, Octavia further obtained of her husband,
besides this, twenty light ships for her brother, and of her brother, a
thousand foot for her husband. So, having parted good friends, Caesar
went immediately to make war with Pompey to conquer Sicily. And
Antony, leaving in Caesar's charge his wife and children, and his
children by his former wife Fulvia, set sail for Asia.
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Antony’s undoing
But the mischief that thus long had lain still, the passion for
Cleopatra, which better thoughts had seemed to have lulled
and charmed into oblivion, upon his approach to Syria
gathered strength again, and broke out into a flame.
 Without meaning it, however, she was damaging Antony by
this conduct of hers; for he was hated for wronging such a
woman. 3 He was hated, too, for the distribution which he
made to his children in Alexandria; it was seen to be
theatrical and arrogant, and to evince hatred of Rome.”
 “To the Romans with their parochial intolerance of
alien lands, religions, and absolute kings, Antony
had severed his Roman connections.” Suzanne
Cross
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David Shotter
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“Success for Octavian and Agrippa against
Sextus Pompeius led in 39 BC to an agreement
whereby those Republicans who had taken
refuge with Sextus were allowed to return to
Italy. The return of members of some extremely
prestigious families allowed Octavian to claim
credit for their rehabilitation: importantly they
could be used to add distinction to Octavian's
Caesarian faction and thus save him from the
appearance of regality from which Julius
Caesar had suffered because of the absence of
such luminaries.”
David Shotter
 “Octavian,
the leader of the
Caesarian faction, was now the
champion of Republicans and the
defender of patriotism,
nationalism and traditional
respectability; the contrast with
the faction of Julius Caesar could
not have been greater.”
Antony loses in the war of
propaganda- see attached sheet
STAGE 3
Final Confrontation
David Shotter

“The west was being prepared for a war that
was portrayed not for what it really was-a
civil war fought between two rivals for
political supremacy-but as a great national
crusade to defend Rome's integrity against
Oriental barbarism and corruption. Italy
swore to defend its champion in the
forthcoming crusade; 'Italy United' was the
battle-cry for the campaign against Antony
and Cleopatra.”
Changing Power Ratios
70

60
50
40
Octavian
Antony
Lepidus
30
20
10
0
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Qtr Qtr Qtr Qtr
Octavian’s attack
upon Sextus was
the turning point
in his career.
With 500-600
ships and 45
legions at his
disposal he had
so far
outstripped
Antony that his
partner could no
longer catch up
Battle of Actium


The fleets which met at Actium
consisted of large polyremes from
fours up to tens in the joint Greek
and Roman fleet of Mark Anthony
against Octavian's fleet in which
none of the galleys were larger than
sixes, and most were smaller. The
pendulum in shipbuilding now
swung the other way so that the large
polyremes were outclassed and
outmanoeuvred by Octavian's
lighter, faster fleet.
The battle of Actium was the last
major sea battle for three hundred
years. The Roman Republic had
already eliminated most of its
potential naval rivals and the defeat
of the Greek/Egyptian navy at
Actium destroyed the one remaining
sea power which might have
constituted a threat to Roman
Any understanding of Actium must consider the
control of the Mediterranean sea
lanes. Rome emerged as the
later influence of Augustan propaganda.
undisputed master of the
Mediterranean.
Early historians saw the victory belonging to
Octavian. Egyptian sources suggest that it was
meant as cover for
the escape of Antony and Cleopatra. Yet others
suggest that Antony feared the disloyalty of his
soldiers fighting against the son of Caesar
THE ACTIUM PROJECT
A Research Project
of The University of South Florida and
The Greek Ministry of Culture

Just before the battle
began, the fleets faced one
another in long parallel
lines and launched
thousands of stone balls at
one another.
Strategy at
Actium
The forces of Antony and
Cleopatra, camped near the
swampy lowlands of Cape Actium,
had been depleted by malaria
before the battle even began-severely reducing the contingent
of oarsmen. Supply lines had
been cut, further weakening
morale and support. Faced with a
bleak situation that worsened
every day, Antony burned those
ships he could no longer man and
prepared with Cleopatra to
withdraw southward from the gulf
with as much of his force as
possible.
Why did Octavian succeed ?
Octavian’s rise to power highlights the importance of
the army in this period.
Although he inherited Caesar’s power, his name, his
clientale and his troops, more importantly, he was able
to learn from Caesar’s mistakes.
Through the amassing of troops, ably led by Agrippa,
the elimination of his enemies, Brutus, Cassius, Sextus
Pompey and finally Marc Antony and Cleopatra,
Octavian was able to acquire and maintain power.
His program of restoration rested on the tactful
allusion of republican government and the tight
control of military forces.
What strategies did Octavian use
to succeed






Octavian combined a number of political , diplomatic and
military methods in his takeover of the Roman Empire;
Octavian took note of the lessons of previous civil wars.
He used his father’s name to raise troops and gave
himself military backing for his political ambitions.
Octavian knew the benefits of amicitae. He allied himself
first with Cicero and then with Antony against the Senate.
The Lex Titia, which gave legal credance to the Triumvirate
showed that Octavian utilized the power of the tribunes as
a weapon against the Senate.
Octavian chose not to give clemencia to his enemies as
his father had done. His treatment of his enemies and
proscriptions were more reminiscent of Sulla than
Caesar.
SUETONIUS

“Nor was he moderate in victory [i.e., after the battle at Philippi],
but, having sent the head of Brutus to Rome to be thrown at the
foot of Caesar's statue, he vented his rage savagely against all the
most distinguished of his captives, not omitting verbal abuse. For
example: when one man humbly begged to be granted due burial, he
is said to have replied that the birds would be given charge of that
matter quite soon. When others, a father and son, begged for their
lives, he is said to have ordered them to draw lots or to play at even
and odds in order that one might be granted the privilege of living;
and he is said to have looked on when, the father having offered
himself in his son's place and having been slain, the son, too, killed
himself of his own accord.”
Octavian’s methods
The most effective weapon he used against Antony
was propaganda. He played on Rome’s fear that
Antony planned to establish an Egyptian dynasty to
control the Roman Empire. Octavians triumph after
Actium was a triumph over a foreign oriental enemy,
not Antony
 His understanding of the importance of approval by the
masses led him to distribute land and free food and
erect new buildings in Rome. The need to defeat
Sextus Pompey was driven not only by the need to
eliminate his fathers enemies but also to rid the seas of
pirates to ensure the corn trade.
 He promised peace and restoration of the Republic. In
this sense he showed greater patience and
diplomacy towards the Senate than his
predecessors.
 Octavian realized his own shortcomings as a military
general and compensated accordingly.. He was
fortunate enough to have Agrippa leading the forces to
victory at Naulochus and Actium

“ Octavian..had the initial advantage of
prestige which the name Caesar gave him
among the soldiery; Agrippa organised
victory for him, and Antony played into
his hands. But if his success over Antony
was largely a gift of fortune, his personel
qualities of patience and pernacity
enabled him to take his chances at the
right moment; and in the second act of
his life they enabled him to consolidate
his victory as neither Sulla nor Caesar had
succeeded in doing.” Cary
Why did Antony Fail?





Any assessment of Antony suffers from the
hindsight and propaganda of the Augustan
sources
He constantly underestimated Octavian
His Parthian invasion was costly in funds, men
and prestige
His association with Cleopatra, divorce from
Octavia and Donations of Alexandria, cost him
his dignitas in the eyes of Romans. In the war
of propaganda Antony suffered dearly
Finally without leadership Antony’s soldiers
lost faith in him
Final Word



“ The ultimate basis of the Principate, as established by Augustus, was
the imperium, unrestricted in scope, which gave its holder the supreme
command over the whole army of the Empire, so that all troops took the
military oath of allegiance to him and obeyed his orders. The maius
imperium which the Princeps held was essentially an extraordinary
imperium, because it conferred the sole independent command over all
the Roman troops, was not limited to any definite area and after a short
time, was freed likewise from any temporal restriction.
Mommsen long ago pointed out that this was the culmination of a series
of extraordinary imperia of a military nature which had been created
from time to time during the last century of the Republic and which must
be regarded as preparatory steps in the establishment of the Principate.
In this respect the career of Pompey the Great especially foreshadowed
that of Augustus.”
A E R Boak