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The American Nation
A History of the United States
Fourteenth Edition
Chapter
12
The Sections Go
Their Own Ways
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
The South
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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The South
• South less affected by urbanization,
European immigration, transportation
revolution, and industrialization
• Region was predominantly agricultural and
cotton was king
By 1859: 1.3 million out of 4.3 million bales
were grown beyond the Mississippi
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
Copyright ©2012, ©2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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The South (cont'd)
Upper South Virginia was leading tobacco
producer but states beyond the Appalachians
were raising more than half the crop,
encouraged by the introduction of “Bright
Yellow”
Older sections of Maryland, Virginia, and
North Carolina shifted to the type of
diversified farming associated with Northeast
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
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The South (cont'd)
• At time of Washington and Jefferson,
progressive Virginia planters had
experimented with crop rotation and
fertilizers
• In mid-nineteenth century, Edmund Ruffin
introduced the use of marl to counteract
acidity of worn-out tobacco fields
Combined with fertilizers, proper drainage
and plowing methods, doubled and even
tripled the yield of corn and wheat
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
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The South (cont'd)
• In the 1840s, southern planters
experimented with a variety of fertilizers,
plowing techniques and livestock breeds
• Increased importance of cotton
strengthened the hold of slavery on the
region
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
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The Economics of Slavery
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
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The Economics of Slavery
• Price of slaves rose
1850s: prime field hand was worth 3 times as
much as in 1820 (as much as $1,800)
Crop value per slave jumped from less than
$15 early in century to more than $125 in
1859
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
• Slaves in Deep South brought several
hundred dollars more per head than in the
older regions
Mississippi took in 10,000 slaves a year
By 1830, black population in Mississippi
exceeded white
Transfer of more than a million slaves from
seaboard states to West
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Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
• Slave trading became big business
1850s: about 50 dealers in Charleston and
200 in New Orleans
• Impact on slaves was disastrous
Husbands and wives, parents and children
were separated
One study suggests one-third of all first
“slave” marriages in upper South were broken
by forced separation
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Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
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A woman in a net on a Congo shore.
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
Nearly half of all children were separated
from at least one parent
• As slaves became more expensive,
ownership of slaves became more
concentrated
In 1860, only about 46,000 of 8 million white
residents of slave states had as many as 20
slaves
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
• Most efficient size of plantation worked by
gangs of slaves was 1,000 to 2,000 acres
Majority of farmers in south cultivated no
more than 200 acres
Many cultivated fewer than 100 acres
On eve of Civil War only one family in four
owned any slaves at all
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
• Yeoman farmers: grew staple crops,
owned a few slaves, worked besides them
in the fields—hardworking, self-reliant, and
moderately prosperous
• “Poor white trash” of pine barrens and
remote valleys of Appalachians scratched
a meager subsistence from substandard
soils and lived in ignorance and squalor
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
• Well-managed plantations yielded annual
profits of 10 percent or more
• Money invested in southern agriculture
earned at least moderate return
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
• After allowing for the cost of land and
capital, average plantation slave “earned”
cotton worth $78.78 in 1859
$32 a year to feed, clothe and house a slave
60% of product of slave labor was
expropriated by the masters
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
• South failed to develop locally owned
marketing and transportation facilities
1840: $2.85 to move a bale of cotton from
farm to seaport
Additional charges for storage, insurance,
port fees, and freight to a European port
exceeded $15
Most of this money earned by middlemen
outside of South
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The Economics of Slavery (cont'd)
Middlemen also supplied most of foreign
goods purchased by planters
Nearly everyone in New England could read
and write, while over 20% of white
Southerners could not
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Antebellum Plantation Life
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Antebellum Plantation Life
• Medium to large operation employing 20
or more slaves
Master’s house with complement of barns
and stables
Kitchen
Smokehouse
Washhouse
Home for the overseer
Schoolhouse, perhaps
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Antebellum Plantation Life (cont'd)
Grist mill
Forge
Slave quarters
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Antebellum Plantation Life (cont'd)
• Husbands and wives did not function in
separate spheres though functions were
different and gender related
• Planters purchased fine clothes, furniture
and china, as well as other manufactured
goods
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Antebellum Plantation Life (cont'd)
• Plantations were also busy centers of
household manufacture
Clothes for slaves (except shoes)
Everyday clothing for their own children
Bedding and other textiles
Spinning, weaving, and sewing were
women’s work
Food was raised on the plantation except for
coffee, tea, and a few other items
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Antebellum Plantation Life (cont'd)
• Master was in charge—paternalistic
system
• Wife had immense responsibilities
Supervising servants
Nursing the sick
Taking care of vegetable and flower gardens
Planning meals
Seeing to the education of her own children
and training of young slaves
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Antebellum Plantation Life (cont'd)
Generally married in their teens so had to
learn by doing
• Majority of slaves of both sexes were field
hands who labored on the land from dawn
to dusk
• Household servants and artisans, any
slave but old and infirm, might be called on
for field labor when needed
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Antebellum Plantation Life (cont'd)
• Slave women were expected to cook for
their own families and do other chores
after working in fields
• Children, free and slave, were cared for by
household servants
Infants were brought to their mothers in the
fields for nursing several times a day
Slave children were not put to work until they
were 6 or 7 years old and until 10 they were
only given small tasks
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
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Antebellum Plantation Life (cont'd)
Black and white children played together and
were often cared for by the same nursemaid
• Slave cabins were simple and crude:
single dark room with a fireplace
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The Kingsley plantation, on Fort George Island
in Jacksonville, Florida.
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
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The Sociology of Slavery
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The Sociology of Slavery
• Whipping
20 lashes for ordinary offenses: shirking work
or stealing
39 for more serious offenses: running away
Sometimes slaves were whipped to death,
though by 1821 master could be charged with
murder if caused slave death through
excessive punishment (conviction resulted in
relatively minimal fine)
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• Most owners provided adequate housing,
clothing, and food
Infant mortality among slaves was twice that
of whites
Life expectancy was five years less
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• U.S. only country in western hemisphere
where slave population grew by natural
increase
After ending of slave trade in 1808, black
population grew at nearly same rate as white
From founding of Jamestown to Civil War,
only slightly more than 500,000 slaves were
imported (5 percent of slaves carried to New
World) yet in 1860 there were 4 million blacks
in U.S.
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• Most owners felt responsibilities toward
their slaves and slaves were imitative of
white values
Powerful fears existed on both sides
• Slaves had no rights
Marriages had no legal status though
partnerships appear to have been loving and
stable
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• Slave religion mixture of African traditions
and Christianity
Religious meetings provided slaves with the
opportunity to organize
Sustained sense of own worth
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• As price of slaves rose and northern
opposition grew, slave system hardened
1822: after conspiracy of Denmark Vesey was
exposed, 37 slaves executed and 30
deported though no overt act had occurred
Louisiana: 16 slaves were decapitated after
an uprising
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• As price of slaves rose and northern
opposition grew, slave system hardened
Nat Turner uprising in Virginia in 1831 cost 57
whites their lives
White southerners treated runaways almost
as brutally as rebels
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• After Nat Turner revolt, interest in
abolishing slavery vanished in white South
Southern states made it increasingly difficult
for masters to free slaves
During 1859 only about 3,000 were given
their freedom (.00075 percent)
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• Slavery did not flourish in urban settings
and cities did not flourish where slavery
was important
Southern cities were small
Slave labor minor since harder to control in
urban setting
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The Sociology of Slavery (cont'd)
• Southern whites considered existence of
free blacks undesirable
Undercut notion that blacks are helpless on
their own
Set bad example for slaves
Many southern states passed laws aimed at
forcing free blacks to emigrate but these were
not well enforced
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Table 12.1 Major Slave Rebellions
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Psychological Effects of Slavery
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Psychological Effects of Slavery
• Slavery had a corrosive effect on the
personalities of southerners, black and
white
• Bore heavily on all slaves’ sense of self
worth
• Most slaves appeared resigned to their
fate
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Psychological Effects of Slavery
(cont'd)
• Slaves had strong family and group
attachments and a complex culture of their
own
By a mixture of subterfuge, accommodation,
and passive resistance, slaves erected
defenses against exploitation, achieving a
sense of community that helped sustain the
psychic integrity of the individuals
Slavery discouraged, if not extinguished,
independent judgment and self-reliance
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Psychological Effects of Slavery
(cont'd)
• Whites were also harmed by slavery
Associating working for others with servility
discouraged many poor white Southerners
from hiring out to make a stake
Slavery provided the weak, shiftless, and
unsuccessful with a scapegoat that made
their own situation easier to bear but harder
to escape
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Psychological Effects of Slavery
(cont'd)
Patriarchal nature of slave system reinforced
tendency toward male dominance over wives
and children
Power of ownership could be brutalizing
• Slavery caused basically decent people to
commit countless petty cruelties
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Manufacturing in the South
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Manufacturing in the South
• Small flour and lumber mills flourished
• Rope making plants in Kentucky
• Commercial cotton presses existed in a
number of southern cities
• Iron and coal were mined in Virginia,
Kentucky, and Tennessee
1850s: Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond did
an annual business of about $1 million
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Manufacturing in the South (cont'd)
• Availability of raw materials and
abundance of waterpower on Appalachian
slopes made it possible to manufacture
textiles profitably
1825: thriving factory in Fayetteville, North
Carolina
William Gregg’s factory at Graniteville, South
Carolina, established 1846, was employing
300 people by 1850
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Manufacturing in the South (cont'd)
• Yet in 1850 all of South Carolina employed
fewer than 900 in textile manufacturing
• The town of Lowell, Massachusetts, had
more spindles in 1860 than the entire
South
• Less than 15% of all goods manufactured
in United States came from the South
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The Northern Industrial Juggernaut
• Immediately after War of 1812 the United
States was manufacturing less than $200
million worth of goods annually
• In 1859, northeastern states alone
produced $1.27 billion of national total of
almost $2 billion
Factory system made great strides
Development of anthracite coal mine fields in
Pennsylvania
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The Northern Industrial Juggernaut
(cont'd)
• Great receptivity to technological change
• By 1850, the U.S. led the world in the
manufacture of goods that required the
use of precision instruments
Clocks, pistols, rifles, and locks were
outstanding
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The Northern Industrial Juggernaut
(cont'd)
• By 1850s prejudice against corporations
had broken down
By end of decade northern and northwestern
states had all passed incorporation laws
Corporations made possible the larger
accumulation of capital
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The Northern Industrial Juggernaut
(cont'd)
• Industrial growth led to increase in
demand for labor
Skilled artisans, technicians, and toolmakers
earned good wages and found it relatively
easy to become independent craftsmen or
small manufacturers
Expanding frontier drained off much
agricultural labor that might have gone into
industry
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The Northern Industrial Juggernaut
(cont'd)
Pay of unskilled worker was never enough to
support a family decently
New machines weakened the bargaining
power of artisans by making skill less
important
Immigration increased rapidly in the 1830s
and 1840s
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The Northern Industrial Juggernaut
(cont'd)
• Growth of capital
European investors poured large sums of
money into booming American industry
Gold from gold rush
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The Northern Industrial Juggernaut
(cont'd)
• Other important factors
Improvements in transportation
Population growth
Absence of internal tariff barriers
Relatively high per capita wealth
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A Nation of Immigrants
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A Nation of Immigrants
• “Immigrant” only developed as a term after
the creation of the United States and
nationalism associated with it
• “Native” population disliked immigrants
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A Nation of Immigrants (cont'd)
• Immigrants developed their own
prejudices
Irish disliked blacks—often competed for
same jobs
Most immigrants adopted views of local
majority
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A Nation of Immigrants (cont'd)
• Unskilled immigrants caused serious
disruptions of economic patterns wherever
they appeared
By 1860, Irish immigrants made up more than
50 percent of the labor force in New England
textile mills
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How Wage Earners Lived
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How Wage Earners Lived
• Many wage earners lived in urban slums
with extremely crowded conditions
City streets were littered with trash
Recreational facilities were almost nonexistent
Police and fire protection were inadequate
• Early factory town families had
supplemented incomes with gardens but
not a choice in industrial slums
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How Wage Earners Lived (cont'd)
• Horace Greeley figured minimum weekly
support for a family of 5 in 1851 was
$10.37 while a factory hand rarely made
$5
Wife and children therefore also had to work
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How Wage Earners Lived (cont'd)
• Unions
Relatively few workers belonged
Most unions were craft unions
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How Wage Earners Lived (cont'd)
• Skilled workers improved lot in 1840s and
1850s
Working day declined from 12.5 hours to 10–
11 hours
Many states passed 10 hour laws and laws
regulating child labor (poorly enforced)
Commonwealth v. Hunt (1842,
Massachusetts) established legality of labor
unions
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How Wage Earners Lived (cont'd)
• Flush times of 1850s revived labor unions
Strikes and national organizations
Panic of 1857 ended most of this
• Why Unions not very successful
Craftsmen took little interest in unskilled
workers
Few common laborers considered
themselves part of a permanent working
class
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How Wage Earners Lived (cont'd)
• Why Unions not very successful
Wage labor seemed un-American, a violation
of republican values of freedom and
independence
Union organization made difficult as a result
of republican value system, fluidity of society,
influx of job-hungry immigrants and
widespread employment of women and
children in unskilled jobs
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Progress and Poverty
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Progress and Poverty
• Prior to Civil War, United States was a
land of opportunity; a democratic society
with a prosperous, expanding economy
and few class distinctions; people had a
high standard of living compared to
Europeans
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Progress and Poverty (cont'd)
• Within this country existed a class of
miserably underpaid and depressed
unskilled workers who were worse off
materially than almost any southern slave
In 1848 more than 56,000 New Yorkers (1/4
population) was receiving some form of public
relief
Police drive in New York in 1860 brought in
nearly 500 beggars
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Progress and Poverty (cont'd)
• Economic opportunities were great and
taxation was little so the rich got richer
• While political opportunity for white men
was equal, economic opportunity was
increasingly skewed
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Foreign Commerce
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Foreign Commerce
• Imports and Exports
Increased erratically in 1820s and 1830s
Leapt forward in next 20 years
• Remained primarily exporter of raw
materials and importer of manufactured
goods and mostly imported more than
exported
Cotton still most valuable export
- 1860 = $191 million out of total $333 million
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Foreign Commerce (cont'd)
Textiles number one import followed by iron
products
Great Britain both best purchaser and best
supplier
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Foreign Commerce (cont'd)
• Whaling boomed between 1830 and 1860
By mid 1850s sperm oil sold at more than
$1.75/gallon
Country exported an average of $2.7 million
worth of whale oil and whalebone
Whalers routinely cleared 100% profit
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Foreign Commerce (cont'd)
• By 1850s: average vessel was three times
size of those built 30 years earlier
Clipper ships with undreamed of speeds
emerged—sailing around Cape Horn to San
Francisco dropped from 5 to 6 months to
three
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Steam Conquers the Atlantic
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Steam Conquers the Atlantic
• Early problems with steamships
Early models were unsafe in high seas
Had to carry tons of coal which reduced
space for cargo
• By late 1840s steamships were capturing
most of the passenger traffic, mail
contracts and first-class freight
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Steam Conquers the Atlantic (cont'd)
• Steamers were soon crossing Atlantic in
10 days
For very long voyages, fast sailing ships held
their own for many years
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Steam Conquers the Atlantic (cont'd)
• Shipping rates decreased due to
competition, government subsidy, and
technological advance
Mid-1820s to mid-1850s: cost of moving a
pound of cotton from New York to Liverpool
fell from 1 cent to one-third cent
Transatlantic passengers could obtain best
accommodations on the fastest ships for
under $200
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Steam Conquers the Atlantic (cont'd)
Good accommodations on slower ships could
be had for $75
Ships went to Europe with bulky raw
materials and returned with manufactured
goods that failed to take up room—filled rest
with immigrants
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Canals and Railroads
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Canals and Railroads
• Canals: in 1830 there were 1,277 miles of
canal in U.S.; by 1840 there were 3,326
miles
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Canals and Railroads (cont'd)
• 1845: Erie Canal was drawing 2/3 of eastwest traffic from New York
1847: more than half of traffic came from west
of Buffalo
1851: more than two-thirds did and volume of
western commerce was 20 times more than
in 1836
Value of western goods reaching New
Orleans in same period increased only 2 and
a half times
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Canals and Railroads (cont'd)
• Railroads:
1830 Baltimore & Ohio, first American line,
carried 80,000 passengers over 13 mile
stretch of track
By 1833: Charleston, South Carolina, had a
line reaching 136 miles
By 1840: the U.S. had 3,328 miles of track—
equal to canal mileage and double the
railroad mileage of Europe
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Canals and Railroads (cont'd)
• Early railroad did not compete with canals
because
Did not generally cross Appalachians
Were not organized into systems
Often used different track widths
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Canals and Railroads (cont'd)
Engineering issues such as steep grades and
sharp curves
- Modifications in design of locomotives enabled
trains to negotiate sharp curves
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Canals and Railroads (cont'd)
• Early problems with railroads
Sparks from wood burning locomotives
caused fires
- Engines that could burn hard coal eliminated due
to danger of fires
Wooden rails topped with strap iron wore out
quickly and broke loose under vibration
- Iron T-rail and use of crossties set in loose gravel
to reduce vibration increased track durability and
enabled heavier equipment
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Canals and Railroads (cont'd)
• Four lines built tracks from eastern coast
to interior valley
1851: Erie Railroad, longest in the world with
537 miles, linked Hudson River with Lake
Erie
1852: Baltimore & Ohio reached Wheeling,
Virginia
1853: New York Central was formed from 8
shorter lines
1858: Pennsylvania Railroad completed a line
from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh
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Canals and Railroads (cont'd)
• By 1855: passengers could travel from
Chicago or St. Louis to the east coast in
less than 48 hours for $20 to $30
Previously such a trip would have taken 2 to 3
weeks
• Construction was slower in the South
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Financing the Railroads
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Financing the Railroads
• Private investors supplied about threefourths of money invested in railroads
before 1860 (more than $800 million in
1850s alone)
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Financing the Railroads (cont'd)
• For less well-placed railroads, public aid
was necessary for part of costs
Towns, counties, and states lent money to
railroads and invested in their stock
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Financing the Railroads (cont'd)
Granted special privileges, such as
exemption from taxation and right to
condemn property
Few cases, states built and operated
railroads as public corporations
1850: scheme for granting federal lands to
states to build a line from Lake Michigan to
the Gulf of Mexico passed both houses
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Financing the Railroads (cont'd)
Success of initial grant led to additional
grants of almost 20 million acres benefiting
more than 40 railroads
• Frequently capitalists were more
interested in making money from railroad
construction than from its operation
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Railroads and the Economy
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Railroads and the Economy
• Railroads helped determine what land was
used and how profitably it could be farmed
“Land Grant” railroads stimulated agricultural
expansion by advertising their lands widely
and selling farm sites at low rates on liberal
terms
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Railroads and the Economy (cont'd)
• New tools and machines appeared to help
ease labor shortage
Steel plowshare: John Deere, 1839
Mechanical reaper: Cyrus Hall McCormick
(two workers could cut 14 times as much as
with scythes)
- Competition kept prices within reach of farmers,
especially with installments
- By the 1850s, wheat output rose by nearly 75
percent
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Railroads and the Economy (cont'd)
• Railroad created transformations
Chicago: in 1850 had no railroad tracks but
by 1855 it was the terminus of 2,200 miles
Real estate values and the buying and selling
of land increased
Spurred regional concentration of industry
and increase in size of business unit
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Railroads and the Economy (cont'd)
Stimulated growth of investment banking
First to employ large numbers of salaried
mangers and to developed internal structure
with carefully defined lines of responsibility
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Railroads and the Economy (cont'd)
• Railroad consumed half the nation’s output
of bar and sheet iron in 1860
• Proliferation of trunk lines and competition
of canal system led to sharp decline in
freight and passenger rates
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Railroads, 1860
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Railroads and the Economy (cont'd)
• Cheap transportation had a revolutionary
effect on western agriculture
Center of American wheat production shifted
to Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana
Boomed especially when Crimean War
(1853-1856) and European crop failures
increased demand
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Agriculture, 1860
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The 1831 test of Cyrus McCormick’s reaping
machine
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Railroads and the Sectional Conflict
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Railroads and the Sectional Conflict
• Increased production and cheap
transportation boosted the western
farmer’s income and standard of living
• Problems
Became dependent on middlemen
Overproduction became a problem
Buying a farm required more capital
Proportion of farm laborers and tenants
increased
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Railroads and the Sectional Conflict
(cont'd)
• East-West linkage had fateful effects on
politics
Stimulated nationalism and became a force
for preservation of the Union
When the Mississippi ceased to be essential
to them, citizens of the upper valley could
afford to be more hostile to slavery and
especially to its westward expansion
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Railroads and the Sectional Conflict
(cont'd)
• South failed to create railroad network of
its own
Scattered population of South
Paucity of passenger traffic
Seasonal nature of much of freight business
Absence of large cities
Placed too much reliance on Mississippi
River
Leaders not interested
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The Economy on the Eve of
Civil War
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The Economy on the Eve of
Civil War
• Between mid-1840s and mid-1850s the
United States experienced one of the most
remarkable periods of growth in the history
of the world
• 1857: serious collapse as grain prices fell
in wake of Crimean war and return of
Russian grain to the market
Checked agricultural expansion which hurt
railroads and cut down on demand for
manufactures
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The Economy on the Eve of
Civil War (cont'd)
Unemployment increased
Run on banks which had to suspend specie
payment
• Downturn mainly affected upper
Mississippi Valley while South and
elsewhere minimally affected
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Chapter Review
The American Nation: A History of the United States, Fourteenth Edition
Mark C. Carnes • John A. Garraty
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