Transcript Slide 1

Activists, Scholars,
and Politicians
“We are made by history.”
—Martin Luther King, Jr.
Activists, Scholars, and Politicians
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Dr. Carter Godwin Woodson
Dred Scott
Sojourner Truth
Frederick Douglass
Harriet Tubman
Booker T. Washington
Ida B. Wells-Barnett
W.E.B. Du Bois
Thurgood Marshall
Rosa Parks
Malcolm X
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Medgar Evers
Colin Powell
Dr. Condoleezza Rice
Roy Wilkins with a few of the 250,000 participants on the Mall heading for
the Lincoln Memorial in the NAACP March on Washington on August 28,
1963. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, [reproduction
number, e.g., LC-USZ62-77160]
Dr. Carter Godwin Woodson
1875–1950
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Woodson was born on December 19, 1875, in
New Canton, Virginia, to former slaves James
and Eliza Woodson.
He worked as a miner in the Fayette County,
West Virginia, coal mines and could not afford
to attend school on a full-time basis.
Finally, at the age of 20, he entered Douglass
High School in Huntington, West Virginia,
earning his diploma in only two years.
Dr. Carter Godwin Woodson
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Woodson earned degrees from Berea
College, the Sorbonne, the University of
Chicago, and Harvard University.
In 1912, he became the second African
American to receive a Ph.D. from Harvard.
He worked diligently as an educator—first
as principal of his high school alma mater—
and later at both the high school and college
level.
Dr. Carter Godwin Woodson
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Woodson served in many capacities as a
scholar and a leader, including supervisor of
the schools in the Philippines, a high school
language teacher in Washington, D.C., and
Dean of the Schools of Liberal Arts at
Howard University and West Virginia State
College.
Dr. Carter Godwin Woodson
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Woodson founded The Association for the
Study of African American Life and History
(ASALH) in 1915 in an effort to promote the
history and culture of African Americans.
He established Negro History Week in 1926,
a celebration of African American history
and culture, which evolved into Black
History Month in 1976.
Dr. Carter Godwin Woodson
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His other achievements include publishing
the Journal of Negro History and the Negro
History Bulletin, which remains in
publication as the Black History Bulletin.
Woodson’s additional contributions include
organizing the Associated Publishers in
1920 and writing many scholarly texts on
important African American issues.
Dred Scott
1795–1858
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Born into slavery in
Southampton
County, Virginia,
Dred Scott—and
his legendary
lawsuit—served as
one of many
catalysts to the
Civil War.
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, [reproduction
number, e.g., LC-US-262-5092-307977]
Dred Scott
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After being transported from a slave territory
to a free territory (and back again), Scott
sued his slaveholder for false imprisonment
and battery, claiming that his time spent in a
free territory made him a free man.
Scott’s case made its way to the Supreme
Court of the United States just as sectional
conflict and political tensions flared over the
issue of slavery. The Court delivered its
decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford in 1857.
Dred Scott
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On March 6, 1857, Chief Justice Roger B.
Taney delivered the majority opinion.
Taney ruled against Scott, claiming that
African Americans were not citizens and
could not participate in the judicial process.
Further, the Court’s decision called the
Missouri Compromise unconstitutional.
Dred Scott
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Despite losing his case before the Supreme
Court of the United States, Dred Scott
eventually won his freedom.
On May 26, 1857, Dred Scott’s owner freed
him. Scott remained in St. Louis, Missouri,
until his death on September 17, 1858.
Sojourner Truth
1797–1883
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Isabella Van
Wagener was born
into slavery in Ulster
County, New York.
After escaping to
New York City in
1927, she became
active as a highspirited suffragist
and abolitionist.
President Lincoln shows Sojourner Truth the Bible
presented by the Colored People of Baltimore.
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-US262-16225]
Sojourner Truth
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Isabella left New York in 1843, taking the
name Sojourner Truth.
Truth’s reputation for charismatic speeches
and preaching drew large crowds.
She supported herself through the sale of
her book, The Narrative of Sojourner Truth.
Sojourner Truth
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Truth’s constant activism included gathering
supplies for black volunteer regiments of the
Civil War. In the nation’s capitol, she helped
integrate street cars and aid refugees.
In 1864, Truth accepted a position with the
National Freedmen’s Relief Association,
where she counseled former slaves.
Truth settled in Battle Creek, Michigan,
where she remained until her death on
November 26, 1883.
Frederick Douglass
1817–1895
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Known as one of the
most influential human
rights leaders of the
19th century, Douglass,
who was born into
slavery, became one of
the first black U.S.
citizens to hold a
high-ranking office in
the U.S. government.
Frederick Douglass, American Abolitionist
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-US262-24165]
Frederick Douglass
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Douglass was born Frederick Augustus
Washington Bailey on February 7, 1817, at
Holme Hill Farm in Talbot County, Maryland.
In 1838, he escaped from slavery, fleeing to
New York and later Massachusetts. In an
effort to escape slave hunters, Frederick
changed his last name to Douglass.
After delivering a moving, eloquent speech at
an 1841 antislavery convention, Douglass
was asked to be an agent for the
Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society.
Frederick Douglass
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From that point forward, Douglass was a tireless
supporter of the Abolitionist Movement.
In 1845, Douglass published the first of three
autobiographies, The Narrative of the Life of
Frederick Douglass, and was forced to flee to
England to avoid being recaptured by his owner,
whose name he mentioned in his book.
British supporters purchased Douglass’s
freedom from Hugh Auld in 1846, and he
returned to the United States as a free man.
Frederick Douglass
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During the Civil War, he served as a
consultant to President Abraham Lincoln.
Once the war ended, he advocated civil
rights for freedmen and women’s rights.
Douglass’s posts included assistant
secretary of the Santo Domingo
Commission, president of the Freedman’s
Savings and Trust Company, U.S. Marshall
of the District of Columbia, and Minister to
Haiti.
Frederick Douglass
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Douglass’s literary contributions include his
three autobiographies:
The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass
My Bondage and My Freedom
Life and Times of Frederick Douglass
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He also published an antislavery
newspaper, known as the North Star, from
1847 to 1860.
Douglass died in 1895 at his home in Cedar
Hill, Anacostia.
Harriet Tubman
1820–1913
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Araminta Ross was
born into slavery
around 1820 in
Dorchester County,
Maryland. She later
changed her name
to Harriet in honor
of her mother.
Harriet Tubman
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-USZ62-7816]
Harriet Tubman
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Harriet’s childhood was stable, and she
grew up in a loving and religious family. She
married John Tubman in 1844.
Harriet Tubman escaped from slavery to
Pennsylvania in 1849, where she began
planning how she would free the rest of her
family from slavery. Within eight years, she
had freed her entire family, including her
mother and father.
Harriet Tubman
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Tubman began working to free other slaves—
a mission that brought her into contact with
other abolitionists, including John Brown,
William H. Seward, Susan B. Anthony,
William Still, and Ralph Waldo Emerson.
She became even more active in 1775,
working with the Pennsylvania Society for
Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, the Relief
of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage,
and for Improving the Condition of the African
Race.
Harriet Tubman
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As a “conductor” on the Underground
Railroad, she made at least 19 trips into the
South, helping to free around 300 slaves.
She worked as both a nurse and a spy during
the Civil War, returning to Auburn, New York,
after the war had ended.
After the war, Tubman worked with women’s
groups in the continued struggle for women’s
rights. In 1896, she served as a delegate for
the National Federation of Afro-American
Women.
Harriet Tubman
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In 1908, she opened
the Harriet Tubman
Home for the Aged
and Indigent Colored
People in Auburn, New
York.
Sadly, Tubman lived
out the last two years
of her life as a resident
of this home. She died
of pneumonia on
March 10, 1913.
Harriet Tubman, full-length portrait, seated in chair, facing front,
probably at her home in Auburn, New York.
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-DIG-ppmsca-02909]
Harriet Tubman
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Her life’s work was honored posthumously
at a memorial service in Auburn, New York,
where Booker T. Washington delivered the
address.
During World War II, in her honor a
liberty ship was christened the Harriet
Tubman by Eleanor Roosevelt.
In 1978, the U.S. Postal Service issued a
Harriet Tubman commemorative stamp as
its first stamp in the Black Heritage Series.
Booker T. Washington
1856–1915
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Booker Taliaferro
was born into
slavery on April 5,
1856 in Franklin
County, Virginia.
As a young boy,
he attended school
and worked in the
salt mines of
Malden, West
Virginia.
Booker T. Washington (1902)
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-US262-3444]
Booker T. Washington
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Booker became confused and embarrassed
when his teacher called attendance, thinking
he did not have two names like the other
children. He quickly added “Washington” to
his name, changing his name to Booker
Taliaferro Washington.
Booker T. Washington
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In 1872, Washington entered Hampton
Institute, where he studied college-level
courses and masonry while working as the
Institute’s janitor.
He graduated from Hampton Institute in
1876. In 1879, he returned to serve on its
faculty and was charged with the education
of 100 Native American students.
In 1881, he founded the Tuskegee Institute
in Tuskegee, Alabama.
Booker T. Washington
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From 1881 to 1915
Washington led the
Institute, which
became a pioneer
in agricultural
learning and
extension.
He believed that
learning a trade
was crucial for
African Americans.
Carnegie Library, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Detroit Publishing
Company Collection, [reproduction number, e.g., LC-D4-10865]
Booker T. Washington
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Washington delivered his famous
Atlanta Compromise speech in 1895,
expressing his views on race and education.
White leaders in the North and South were
pleased with Washington's speech, but black
intellectuals feared that Washington's
philosophy would result in blacks’ indefinite
subservience to whites.
This fear led to the Niagara Movement and to
the founding of the National Association for
the Advancement of Colored People.
Booker T. Washington
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In 1900, Washington
founded the
National Negro
Business League.
He died in 1915; his
birthplace is a national
monument.
The Booker T.
Washington launched
on September 29,
1942.
Construction of the liberty ship "Booker T. Washington." The "Booker T.
Washington," first liberty ship to be named for a Negro, is shown being
rushed to completion on one of the ways of the California Shipbuilding
Corporation.
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA/OWI Collection,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-USF34-9058-C]
Ida B. Wells
1862–1931
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Ida. Bell Wells was
born into slavery in
Holly Springs,
Mississippi, just six
months before the
Emancipation
Proclamation
freed all slaves.
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division,
FSA/OWI Collection, [reproduction number, e.g.,
LC-USF34-9058-C]
Ida B. Wells
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In 1878, when she was only sixteen, her
parents and some siblings died from yellow
fever, leaving Wells to raise her younger
brothers and sisters. She worked as a
teacher to support her family.
In 1887, she was offered—and accepted—a
position and part ownership with the
newspaper Memphis Free Speech and
Headlight.
Ida B. Wells
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An anti-lynching advocate, Wells ran an
editorial blaming Memphis’s white
community for the death of three African
Americans in 1892. She left town before the
paper hit the streets.
Forced to become a journalist in exile, Wells
took on the pen name “Iola.”
Ida B. Wells
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In 1895, Wells settled in Chicago, where she
married Frederick Barnett, a lawyer and
newspaper owner.
Throughout the 1890s and early 1900s,
Wells ran anti-lynching campaigns. She also
joined the women’s rights movement,
fighting for the right to vote.
Ida B. Wells
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Wells died in
1931. Chicago
honored her
contributions to
the city by
naming a public
housing project
after her.
Chicago, Illinois. Ida B. Wells housing project.
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA/OWI
Collection, [reproduction number, e.g.,
LC-USF34-9058-C]
W.E.B. Du Bois
1868–1963
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Du Bois was a
scholar, an
important leader in
the 20th century
African American
protest movement,
and an advocate of
Pan-Africanism.
W.E.B. Du Bois
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division,
Carl Van Vechten Collection, [reproduction number, e.g.,
LC-USZ62-36176 ]
W.E.B. Du Bois
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Notably, Du Bois is the first in this series of
activists, scholars, and politicians who was
not born into slavery.
He was born on February 23, 1868, in Great
Barrington, Massachusetts.
Du Bois graduated as valedictorian of his
high school and went on to obtain a number
of degrees from colleges and universities.
W.E.B. Du Bois
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These degrees included a Bachelor of Arts
from Fisk University in 1888 and a Ph.D.
from Harvard University in 1895.
His Harvard dissertation and a study
conducted while he was a professor of the
University of Pennsylvania are considered
his two greatest works:
The Suppression of the African Slave Trade to the United States of America, 1638–1870
The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (1899)
W.E.B. Du Bois
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His goals were to gain equal treatment for
African Americans in a society dominated by
whites and to dispel through research what
he believed was the myth of racial inferiority.
Du Bois was one of many African American
intellectuals who disagreed with the popular
views of Booker T. Washington.
In 1905, Du Bois founded the
Niagara Movement as an opposition
force to Washington’s philosophy.
W.E.B. Du Bois
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In 1909, Du Bois helped to found the
National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP).
From 1910 to 1934, Du Bois was the
NAACP director of publicity and research, a
member of the board of directors, and editor
of The Crisis, the NAACP’s monthly
magazine.
W.E.B. Du Bois
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In 1934, Du Bois resigned from his positions
and returned to teach at Atlanta University—
where he founded the magazine Phylon—
for a decade before returning to the NAACP.
Having always considered himself a
Socialist, Du Bois also identified with
Russian causes—a political view that
resulted in his being indicted as a spy. The
charges were eventually dropped.
W.E.B. Du Bois
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In 1961, outraged and disenchanted with
the United States, Du Bois moved to Ghana
and joined the Communist Party.
Du Bois died in Ghana on August 27,
1963—the night before the famous
March on Washington.
Thurgood Marshall
1908–1993
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Marshall became
the first African
American
appointed to the
Supreme Court of
the United States,
a post he held from
1967 to 1991.
Thurgood Marshall
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He was born and raised in Baltimore and
graduated with honors from Lincoln
University in Pennsylvania.
Marshall graduated first in his class from
Howard University Law School in
Washington, D.C., in 1933.
In 1936 he joined the legal staff of the
NAACP and soon became its chief counsel,
or head attorney. In this capacity, he argued
more than 30 cases before the Supreme
Court, most of which he won.
Thurgood Marshall
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Perhaps Marshall’s most important victory
was Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
(1954). This landmark case declared
segregation in public schools
unconstitutional, overturning the Court’s
1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson.
Before becoming a Supreme Court justice,
Marshall served on the U.S. Second Circuit
Court of Appeals and later as solicitor
general of the United States.
Rosa Parks
1913–
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An important civil
rights leader,
Rosa Parks was
born in
Tuskegee,
Alabama. She
attended
Alabama State
College and
made her living
as a seamstress.
Rosa Parks, three-quarter length portrait, seated toward front of bus, facing right,
Montgomery, Alabama
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, [reproduction number, e.g., LCUSZ62-111235]
Rosa Parks
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Early in her life, Parks became active in the
Montgomery Voters League and the NAACP
Youth Council. She eventually became
secretary of the Montgomery branch of the
NAACP.
Her greatest contribution to the civil rights
movement began in December 1955. Parks
violated segregation laws by refusing to give
up her seat on a bus for a white person.
Rosa Parks
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After the police
arrested her,
Martin Luther
King, Jr.,
organized a
massive
boycott of the
bus system.
Woman fingerprinted. Mrs. Rosa Parks, Negro seamstress, whose refusal to move to
the back of a bus touched off the bus boycott in Montgomery, Ala.
Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, [reproduction number, e.g.,
LC-USZ62-109643]
Rosa Parks
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In 1956, segregated seating on buses was
challenged in court and soon was ruled
unconstitutional. Buses were officially
desegregated.
Parks moved to Michigan, where she
continued to work as a seamstress and a
fundraiser for the NAACP. In 1987, she
founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks
Institute for Self-Development, which offered
guidance to young African Americans.
Malcolm X
1925–1965
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Malcolm X was born
Malcolm Little on May
19, 1925, in Omaha,
Nebraska. He had a
tragic childhood. The
Ku Klux Klan burned
down his house, his
father was murdered,
and his mother was
placed in a mental
institution.
Malcolm X at Queens Court / World Telegram & Sun
photo by Herman Hiller.
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-USZ62-119478]
Malcolm X
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As a teen, he moved to Boston where he
was imprisoned for burglary. While in prison,
he converted to Islam and joined the Black
Muslim movement (Nation of Islam).
Malcolm soon became the most prominent
spokesperson for the Nation of Islam. He
founded many mosques and greatly
increased the movement’s membership.
Malcolm X
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Malcolm X spoke powerfully and effectively
against white exploitation of African
Americans. He opposed the civil rights
movement and instead encouraged black
separatism and self-dependence.
His support of violence in self-defense was
rejected by many civil rights leaders, who
thought he was a fanatic. In 1964, he left the
Nation of Islam after a dispute with its
leader.
Malcolm X
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In April 1964, he made a pilgrimage to
Mecca, where he reaffirmed his Islamic
faith. He also modified his views on black
separatism and decided on a vision of world
brotherhood.
In 1965, he was shot to death during a rally
with his followers. Three Nation of Islam
members were convicted of the crime.
Medgar Wiley Evers
1925–1963
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Another civil rights
leader, Evers
began his career
serving in the U.S.
Army during World
War II. During his
service, he fought
in France and
Germany.
Medgar Evers, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing right,
wearing jacket and tie.
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-USZ62-109400]
Medgar Wiley Evers
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Evers earned a Bachelor of Arts degree
from Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical
College in Mississippi. While there, he
married Myrlie Beasley, with whom he had
three children.
Soon after graduation, Evers became highly
active in the NAACP and organized local
groups in his home city of Philadelphia,
Mississippi.
In 1954, he was appointed Mississippi's first
field secretary for the NAACP.
Medgar Wiley Evers
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Evers conducted campaigns to register
African American voters in his home state
and organized boycotts of companies that
practiced racial discrimination.
His boycott of Jackson merchants in the
early 1960s and his efforts to have James
Meredith admitted to the University of
Mississippi in 1962 attracted national
attention.
Medgar Wiley Evers
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Evers and his family
were continually
threatened by racists,
who firebombed his
house in May 1963.
In June 1963, he was
murdered outside his
home. He received a
military funeral at
Arlington National
Cemetery.
Mrs. Medgar Evers with her children at Medgar Evers' grave, Arlington National
cemetery.
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, [reproduction number,
e.g., LC-USZ62-119494
Medgar Wiley Evers
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Although a suspect for the murder was
quickly found (Byron de la Beckwith),
Beckwith survived two trials. Finally, in 1994,
a third trial using new witnesses resulted in
Beckwith’s conviction.
Evers’ wife, Myrlie, was elected chairwoman
of the board of directors of the NAACP in
1995.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
1929–1968

Dr. Martin Luther
King, Jr., was born
“Michael Luther” on
January 15, 1929
and became the
greatest force
behind the 1960s
Civil Rights
Movement.
Roy Wilkins with a few of the 250,000 participants on the Mall heading for
the Lincoln Memorial in the NAACP march on Washington on August 28,
1963. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, [reproduction
number, e.g., LC-USZ62-77160]
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
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King received a Bachelor degree in
sociology from Morehouse College and
studied religion at Crozer Theological
Seminary.
He continued his studies in religion at
Boston University. While in Boston, he met
Coretta Scott. The couple married in 1953.
The Kings settled in Alabama, and in 1954
King became pastor of the Dexter Avenue
Baptist Church in Montgomery.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

In 1957, Dr. King rose from local to national
leadership. On January 11, he became
chairman of the Southern Negro Leaders
Conference on Transportation and
Nonviolent Integration, a group that was
later renamed Southern Christian
Leadership Conference (SCLC).
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
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Despite rising tensions and setbacks, King
continued his activism for more than a
decade.
On August 28, 1963, more than 250,000
demonstrators joined the March on
Washington for Jobs and Freedom.
Dr. King delivered his "I Have a Dream"
speech, which remains one of the most
moving speeches in American history.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
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On April 4, 1968, Dr. King was shot to death
on the balcony of his motel in Memphis,
Tennessee.
His murder set off rioting across the United
States. Dozens of people were killed, and
National Guard and federal troops were
needed to restore order.
President Johnson declared a national day
of mourning on April 9—the day Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr., was buried.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Many who had heard Dr. King speak on
April 3 recalled his eerily prophetic words:
I just want to do God's will. And He's allowed me to go to the mountain. And I've looked
over, and I've seen the Promised Land! I may not get there with you, but I want you to
know tonight that we as a people will get to the Promised Land.
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On April 11, President Johnson signed the
Civil Rights Act of 1968. It did not create a
promised land for African Americans, but it
did bring them closer.
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
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In 1986—fifteen years after Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr., was murdered—President
Ronald Reagan declared the third Monday
in January a federal holiday honoring Dr.
King's birthday.
Dr. King is entombed on Freedom Plaza,
which is located in Atlanta, Georgia, and
surrounded by the Freedom Hall Complex of
the Martin Luther King, Jr., Historic Site.
Colin Powell
1937–
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Colin Powell is one
of the most
prominent African
American leaders
of our time. He was
appointed
Secretary of State
of the United
States in 2001.
Colin L. Powell, full-length portrait, standing, facing left] / Official
White House photograph.
Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division,
[reproduction number, e.g., LC-USZC4-2965
Colin Powell
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The son of Jamaican immigrants, he was
born on April 5, 1937, in New York City.
Powell attended City College of New York,
earning a Bachelor of Science degree in
geology in 1958.
During college he distinguished himself in
the Army Reserve Officers’ Training Corps.
He graduated with the rank of cadet colonel,
the highest rank awarded.
Colin Powell
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Powell was commissioned a second
lieutenant in the army, serving first in West
Germany and later as a military adviser in
South Vietnam in 1962.
While in service, he was wounded in action.
Later he received the Soldier’s Medal for
rescuing other soldiers from a burning
helicopter.
Colin Powell
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
Powell received a Master’s degree in
business in 1971 from George Washington
University, and he worked for the White
House in the Office of Management and
Budget from 1972 to 1973.
Powell continued to move up through the
military ranks, receiving the rank of major
general and serving as military assistant to
the secretary of defense.
Colin Powell
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Powell was chosen to serve as national
security adviser in 1987.
In 1989, he was promoted to the rank of four
star general and became the first African
American chairman of the Joint Chiefs of
Staff, the most prestigious military post in
the country. In this position he coordinated
U.S. efforts during Desert Storm.
Dr. Condoleezza Rice
1954–
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Condoleezza Rice—born in the segregated
South—has broken many barriers.
She was the youngest person, the first
woman, and the first African American to
hold the position of provost in Stanford
University’s 110-year history.
In 2001, she became the first female
national security adviser in U.S. history.
Dr. Condoleezza Rice
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From 1989 to 1991, Rice served as Senior
Director of Soviet and East European Affairs
in the National Security Council and as
Special Assistant to the President for
National Security Affairs under the first Bush
Administration.
Her education includes a Bachelor degree in
political science from the University of
Denver, a Master’s degree from the
University of Notre Dame, and a Ph.D. from
the University of Denver.
On Your Own
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Research the Internet
to learn more about
African American
activists, scholars,
and politicians,
including:
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Rep. Maxine Waters
Kofi Annan
Rep. Harold Ford
H. Carl McCall
Jesse Jackson, Jr.
Shirley Chisholm
Louis Farrakhan
Marcus Garvey
Alex Haley
Charlayne Hunter-Gault
Ralph David Abernathy
Benjamin Banneker