Transcript The Human Body

Alyssa Larson
*Page numbers are located on bottom right corner of each slide
SECTION 1 – The Digestive System
Digestive System Introduction
1-3
Drawing of the Digestive System
4
Organs of the Digestive System
4-24
Digestion of Large Food Molecules
25
Role of Enzymes in Digestion
26
Physical and Chemical Digestion
27-28
Digestion of Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
Lactose Intolerance
32
Stomach Ulcers
33-34
Digestive System Reference Pages
35-36
29-31
SECTION 2 – The Circulatory System
Circulatory System Introduction
37-38
Structure and Function of Blood Vessels
39-42
Drawing of the Heart
43
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
44-48
Composition of Blood
49-50
Erythrocyte Structure and Function
51
Open and Closed Circulatory Systems
52-53
Variations of the Circulatory System
54-57
Sickle Cell Disease
58-59
Atherosclerosis
60-61
Circulatory System Reference Pages
62-63
SECTION 3 – The Respiratory System
Respiratory System Introduction
64-65
Drawing of the Ventilation System
66
Alveoli
67
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transportation in the Blood
The Path of Oxygen Into the Bloodstream
70-72
Inhalation and Exhalation
73-75
Asthma
76-77
Pneumonia
78-79
Respiratory System Reference Pages
80-81
68-69
SECTION 4 – The Immune System
Immune System Introduction
82-83
Recognition of Pathogens
84-85
Innate and Acquired Immunity
86
Active and Passive Immunity
87
Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immunity
88
B and T Lymphocytes
89
Antibiotics and Bacteria
90
Allergies
91-92
HIV/AIDS
93-94
Immune System Reference Pages
95-96
SECTION 5 – The Excretory System
Excretory System Introduction
97-98
Types of Nitrogenous Wastes
99-101
Drawing of the Kidney
102
Drawing of the Nephron
103
The Nephron
104-109
Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion, and Excretion
Gout
113-114
Urinary Tract Infection
115-116
Excretory System Reference Pages
117-118
110-112
1
Digestive System
Digestive System
 The digestive system’s
function is to break food
down into molecules the
body can absorb
 Allows us to absorb
nutrients and use food as
fuel for ATP production
2
Digestive System
Organs of the Digestive System
Alimentary Canal Organs
Accessory Organs
 Mouth
 Salivary glands
 Pharynx
 Liver
 Esophagus
 Gallbladder
 Stomach
 Pancreas
 Small intestine
 Large intestine
 Rectum
 Anus
3
Digestive System
4
Digestive System
Alimentary Organs
 Organs in the alimentary
canal include the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small
intestine, large
intestine, rectum, and
anus
 The alimentary organs
form the alimentary
canal, which extends from
the mouth to the anus
 Food passes through
organs in the alimentary
canal
5
Digestive System
Accessory Organs
 Includes the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and
pancreas
 The accessory organs of the digestive system are not a
part of the alimentary canal (food does not pass
through them), but they assist the alimentary organs
in the process of digestion
6
Digestive System
The Mouth
 The first portion of the
alimentary canal
 The mouth is surrounded
by the lips, cheeks, tongue,
and palate
 Receives food and begins
digestion by mechanically
breaking up solid particles
into smaller pieces and
mixing them with saliva
(mastication)
7
Digestive System
Salivary Glands
 The salivary glands secrete saliva, which moistens
food particles, helps bind them, and begins the
chemical digestion of carbohydrates
 Saliva is also a solvent, dissolving foods so that they
can be tasted
 Saliva helps cleanse the mouth and teeth
8
Digestive System
Major Salivary Glands
 The three major salivary
glands are the parotid glands,
the submandibular glands,
and the sublingual glands
 Parotid glands – the largest
of the major salivary glands,
located anterior to the ear
 Submandibular glands –
located in the floor of the
mouth on the inside surface
of the lower jaw
 Sublingual glands – the
smallest of the major salivary
glands, located on the floor
of the mouth inferior to the
tongue
9
Digestive System
Pharynx
 The pharynx connects the nasal and oral cavities with the
larynx and esophagus
 The muscular walls of the pharynx and esophagus function
in swallowing
 The pharynx can be divided into three parts
 Nasopharynx – located superior to the soft palate, provides a
passageway for air during breathing
 Oropharynx – posterior to the mouth, the oropharynx is a
passageway for food moving downward from the mouth and
for air moving to and from the nasal cavity
 Laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) – located inferior to the
oropharynx, a passageway to the esophagus
10
Digestive System
11
Digestive System
Esophagus
 A straight, collapsible tube about 25 centimeters long
 Provides a passageway for food
 Its muscular wall propels food from the pharynx to the
stomach
 Penetrates the diaphragm through the esophageal hiatus,
and is continuous with the stomach
 The esophagus contains mucous glands which secrete
mucous to moisten and lubricate the inner lining of the
tube
 Muscle fibers at the entrance to the stomach remain
contracted to prevent regurgitation of stomach contents
into the esophagus. These muscle fibers relax briefly to
allow swallowed food to enter the stomach.
12
Digestive System
Stomach
 The stomach is a pouch-
like organ with a capacity
of about one liter
 Receives food from the
esophagus, mixes it with
gastric juice
 Initiates the digestion of
proteins, carries on limited
nutrient absorption, and
moves food into the small
intestine
13
Digestive System
Pancreas
 Made primary of creatic acinar cells, cells that produce
pancreatic juice
 Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, and nucleic acids
 Pancreatic amylase – splits molecules of starch or glycogen
into disaccharides
 Pancreatic lipase – breaks triglyceride molecules into fatty
acids and monoglycerides
 Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase – each splits
the bonds between particular combinations of amino acids in
proteins
 Nucleases – break down nucleic acid molecules into
nucleotides
14
Digestive System
Pancreas
 The hormone secretin
stimulates the pancreas to
secrete a large quantity of
fluid
 Pancreatic juice has a high
concentration of
bicarbonate ions that
neutralizes acidic materials
arriving from the stomach
 The alkalinity created by
the bicarbonate ions also
provides a favorable
environment for the
digestive enzymes
15
Digestive System
Liver
 The liver has many functions,
including:
 Storing glycogen, iron, vitamins A,




D, and B12
Removing toxic substances from
the blood
Maintaining iron homeostasis
Synthesizing lipoproteins,
phospholipids, and cholesterol
Converting carbohydrate
molecules into fat
 The liver’s function in the
digestive system is to secrete
bile, a yellowish green liquid
16
Digestive System
Liver
 Bile secreted by the liver is made up of water, bile salts,
bile pigments, cholesterol, and electrolytes
 Bile salts aid digestive enzymes
 They reduce surface tension and break fat globules
(molecules of fats clumped together) into droplets, a
process called emulsification
 Allows lipases to digest fat molecules more effectively
 Enhance absorption of fatty acids and cholesterol
 Allows for absorption of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E,
and K
17
Digestive System
Gallbladder
 Stores bile between
meals
 Concentrates bile by
reabsorbing water
 Contracts to release bile
into the duodenum
when stimulated
18
Digestive System
Sphincters
 Sphincters are bands of muscle under either voluntary
or involuntary control that encircle the hollow organs
of the body and contract to close the pathways
 The ileocecal sphincter joins the ileum of the small
intestine to the cecum of the large intestine
 The anus has two sphincter muscles, one under
voluntary control and the other under involuntary
control
 The esophageal sphincter allows food to enter the
stomach and prevents food from going up into the
esophagus, while the pyloric sphincter controls gastric
emptying
19
Digestive System
Small Intestine
 Receives secretions from the pancreas and liver
 Completes digestion of nutrients in the substance
arriving from the stomach
 Absorbs the products of digestion
 Transports the remaining residues into the large
intestine
20
Digestive System
Small Intestine
 Parts of the small intestine
include:
 Duodenum – the shortest
and most fixed portion of
the small intestine
 Jejunum – the diameter
of the jejunum is greater
than that of the ilium, and
its wall is thicker and more
active
 Ilium – has a higher
bacterial population than
the jejunum
21
Digestive System
Enzymes in the Small Intestine
 Digestive enzymes found in the small intestine break down
food molecules before absorption takes place. These
enzymes include:
 Peptidases – split peptides into amino acids
 Sucrase – splits disaccharide sucrose into glucose and
fructose
 Maltase – splits disaccharide maltose into two glucose
molecules
 Lactase – splits disaccharide lactose into glucose and
galactose
 Intestinal lipase – splits fats into fatty acids and glycerol
22
Digestive System
Large Intestine, Rectum, and Anus
Parts of the Large Intestine
 Cecum – the beginning of the
 The large intestine absorbs
ingested water and
electrolytes remaining in the
alimentary canal
 Reabsorbs and recycles water
and remnants of digestive
secretions
 Forms and stores feces




large intestine, connected to the
appendix
Ascending colon – begins at the
cecum and extends upwards
Transverse colon – longest, most
movable part of the large intestine
Descending colon – the
transverse colon turns abruptly
downward to become the
descending colon
Sigmoid colon – the descending
colon makes an S-shaped curve,
where it becomes the sigmoid
colon
23
Digestive System
Rectum and Anus
 The rectum is continuous with the sigmoid colon. It is
attached to the sacrum, and becomes the anal canal
about five centimeters inferior to the tip of the coccyx
bone
 At the distal end of the anal canal is the anus, which is
where the anal canal opens to the outside of the body,
the exit for feces
24
Digestive System
Digestion of Large Food Molecules
 It is important to be able to break down the food we
eat into small molecules that can be used by the body
 Ex: the body must convert starches into glucose before it can be
used as an energy source, proteins must be broken down into
amino acids, and fats must be broken down into their glycerol
and fatty acid components
 Molecules must be small enough to travel through the
wall of the small intestine by diffusion, facilitated
diffusion, or active transport. Food molecules must be
broken down for nutrient absorption to take place.
25
Digestive System
Role of Enzymes in Digestion
 Enzymes in the digestive system are proteins molecules that
break down a specific substance
 The enzymes mentioned under the description of the pancreas
and small intestine are important in breaking down specific
components of the human diet (carbohydrates, proteins, fats)
 In addition to the enzymes previously mentioned, enzymes
involved in digestion include:




Salivary amylase – breaks down starch in the mouth
Pepsin – breaks down proteins in the stomach
Gastric lipase – breaks down fats in the stomach
Trypsin and erepsin – break down wholly and partially digested
proteins into amino acids in the duodenum
 Without enzymes, we would not be able to break down food into
smaller subunits, and therefore would be unable to absorb
nutrients
26
Digestive System
Physical Vs. Chemical Digestion
Physical Digestion
Chemical Digestion
 The breakdown of food by
 The breakdown of food by chemical
physical means, no chemical
reactions involved
 Physical digestion can separate
food molecules, but cannot
break down the molecules
 Chewing food, using smooth
muscle to move food down the
digestive tract, and the churning
of food within the stomach are
all examples of physical
digestion
means, requiring chemical
reactions (enzymes)
 Breaks individual molecules apart
 Breaking down protein,
carbohydrate, and fat molecules are
all examples of chemical digestion
 Chemical digestion is needed to:
 Make molecules small enough to
pass through a cell membrane
 Make nutrients soluble in water
(blood)
 Changes food into a form that is
usable by the body
27
Digestive System
Physical and Chemical Digestion
 Though physical and chemical digestion differ on a
molecular level, the principles are the same.
 In both physical and chemical digestion, food is broken
down into smaller pieces to allow for more efficient
digestion


Physical digestion – breaks apart food particles to increase
the surface area for chemical digestion
Chemical digestion – breaks food molecules into smaller
molecules to allow for nutrient absorption into the
bloodstream and ultimately into body cells
28
Digestive System
Carbohydrate Digestion
 Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth when
the salivary glands secrete the enzyme salivary amylase
 Majority of carbohydrate digestion takes place in the
small intestine. As food moves into the duodenum,
pancreatic amylase is released into the small intestine.
 Breaks down starch into disaccharides
 The small intestine also contains sucrase, maltase,
and lactase
 Break the disaccharides into monosaccharides, which
then enter the bloodstream and are transported to body
cells
29
Digestive System
Protein Digestion
 Digestion of protein begins in the stomach when the stomach secretes
gastric juices containing pepsinogen
 As pepsinogen comes into contact with hydrochloric acid, it is
converted into an active enzyme called pepsin
 When protein reaches the duodenum, a hormone called
cholecytokinin is released from the intestinal walls, stimulating the
release of pancreatic juice
 Pancreatic juice contains three inactive protein splitting enzymes
 In the presence of the enzyme trypsin, the inactive enzymes in the
pancreatic juice become activated and are able to help break down
protein
 Peptidase is released, which splits peptide bonds into amino acids,
allowing for protein digestion
 Digestion is completed in the small intestine. From there the amino
acids travel to body cells through the bloodstream
30
Digestive System
Lipid Digestion
 Chemical digestion of lipids begins in the stomach
 Gastric juices in the stomach contain small amounts of gastric
lipase, which begins to break down certain lipids
 As the lipids pass into the duodenum, the gallbladder releases
bile into the small intestine via the common bile duct
 The function of bile is to emulsify fats – to break them down into
smaller droplets for more effective digestion
 At the same time, pancreatic juices are released, containing
pancreatic lipase. Pancreatic lipase initiates the breaking down
of lipids.
 Intestinal lipase is released, which splits fats into fatty acids and
glycerol
 Some fatty acids dissolve into the blood, while others are used by
the liver in making lipoproteins
31
Digestive System
Lactose Intolerance
 People with lactose
intolerance lack lactase in the
small intestine
 Lactase is the enzyme that
breaks down lactose, the
sugar found in milk products
 Can be caused by digestive
diseases or injuries to the
small intestine
 More than 50 million
Americans are lactose
intolerant
 Symptoms - symptoms worsen
when larger portions of milk
products are consumed, include:
 Cramping
 Bloating
 Gas
 Diarrhea
 Nausea
 People with lactose
intolerance may avoid
symptoms by avoiding milk
products or taking lactase
supplements or lactase drops
32
Digestive System
Stomach Ulcers
 A stomach ulcer is a small erosion in the gastrointestinal tract. It most
commonly occurs in the duodenum.
 Caused by the destruction of the gastric or intestinal lining of the
stomach by hydrochloric acid
 Excess secretion of hydrochloric acid, genetic predisposition, and stress
are all contributing factors
 Chronic use of anti-inflammatory medications such as aspirin may
cause ulcers
 Cigarette smoking can cause an ulcer formation and failure of ulcer
treatment
 Symptoms:
 Burning or gnawing feeling in the stomach area
 Loss of appetite
 Weight loss or weight gain
 Vomiting
 Blood in the stool
 Anemia
33
Digestive System
Stomach Ulcers
 Statistics
 About 20 million Americans
develop at least one stomach
ulcer during their lifetime.
 Stomach ulcers affect about 4
million Americans every year.
 More than 40,000 Americans
have surgery because of
persistent symptoms or
problems from ulcers every
year.
 About 6,000 Americans die
of stomach ulcer-related
complications every year.
 Treatment
 Medication to reduce
stomach acid or to protect
the lining of the stomach and
duodenum
 Antibiotics
 In rare cases, surgery may be
required to treat a peptic
ulcer
34
Digestive System
Digestive System Reference Page
 Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook (Chapter 17 – Digestive




System)
http://www.colostrumresearch.org/Studys/SO54_The%20Neonate%20
and%20Colostrum.htm
http://www.hyss.sg/escience2/filestorage/2E%20%20%20Digestion%20-%20Introduction.htm
http://www.foodallergysolutions.com/lactose-intolerance.html
http://www.mamashealth.com/stomach.asp
35
Digestive System
Reference Page (continued)
 Pictures:
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
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http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=135514&ref=137320
http://automatedaccess.org/rada-describe-human-digestive-system-with-diagram/
http://www.empowher.com/condition/salivary-gland-infection
http://www.epidemic.org/theFacts/essentials/yourLiver/
http://health.allrefer.com/health/gallbladder-disease-gallbladder-anatomy.html
http://www.gastroliverspecialist.com/pancreatic_disease.html
http://www.thisismattjohnson.com/
http://www.subent.com/expertise/salivaryglanddisease.htm
http://www.proprofs.com/flashcards/cardshowall.php?title=respiratory-system_55
http://genericlook.com/anatomy/Stomach/
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/pancreas.html
http://whydetox.net/liver-detoxification
http://www.gallbladderguy.com/gbfacts.html
http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/small-intestine
36
37
Circulatory System
Circulatory System
 The circulatory system has multiple functions:
 Transporting materials




Transports gases (O2 and Co2)
Transports nutrients to cells
Transports waste materials from cells
Transports hormones
 Contains white blood cells that fight infection
 Maintains body temperature
38
Circulatory System
Blood Vessel Structure & Function
 Types of blood vessels:
 Arteries – carry
oxygenated blood away
from the heart

Arterioles – small finely
branched arteries
 Capillaries – smallest,
most numerous blood
vessels
 Veins – carry
deoxygenated blood back
to the heart

Venules – small branches of
veins, merge to form veins
39
Circulatory System
Structure Defines Function
Arteries
Veins
 Function – carry oxygenated
 Function – carry deoxygenated
blood away from the heart
and maintain blood pressure
 Structure:
blood to heart, not under
pressure
 Structure:
 Strong and elastic, designed
for carrying blood away from
the heart under high
pressure
 Have thinner walls than
arteries
 Have a larger lumen than
arteries (the lumen is the part
of the blood vessel through
which blood travels)
40
Circulatory System
Vein Structure Vs. Artery Structure
41
Circulatory System
Structure Defines Function
Capillaries
 Function – allow for exchange of nutrients and oxygen from
red blood cells to body cells and exchange of waste
products and carbon dioxide from body cells to red blood
cells
 Structure:
 The smallest blood vessels
 Have no smooth muscle fibers, unlike arteries and veins
 Have thin walls that form a semipermeable layer through
which substances are exchanged
 Allow only one red blood cell through at a time to allow for
efficient nutrient and gas exchange
42
Circulatory System
43
Circulatory System
The Heart
 The heart has four
chambers, two atria and
two ventricles
 The atria are the smaller
upper chambers
 The ventricles are the
larger lower chambers
LEFT
 The right atrium and
ventricle are located on the
right side of the body, or
the left side when shown in
diagrams. The left atrium
and ventricles are on the
right side in diagrams.
RIGHT
44
Circulatory System
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
Deoxygenated blood
returns from the body
to the heart in veins
leading into the right
atrium
2. Blood passes through
the tricuspid valve
into the right
ventricle. The
tricuspid valve prevents
blood from flowing
back into the right
atrium.
1.
45
Circulatory System
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
3.
4.
The ventricles contract,
forcing blood out of the
right ventricle into the
pulmonary artery. The
blood passes through the
pulmonary valve,
preventing the blood from
flowing back into the right
ventricle
Blood in the pulmonary
artery goes to the lungs to
receive oxygen. The
pulmonary artery is the
only artery that carries
deoxygenated blood
Pulmonary artery
46
Circulatory System
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
After receiving oxygen,
blood returns from the
lungs to the left atrium
via the pulmonary veins
6. The atria contract, forcing
blood from the left
atrium to the left
ventricle. Blood passes
through the Mitral
(Bicuspid) Valve which
prevents blood from
flowing back into the left
atrium.
5.
Pulmonary veins
47
Circulatory System
Pathway of Blood Through the Heart
The ventricles contract,
Aorta
forcing blood out of the
left ventricle and into the
aorta, the largest artery
of the body. The aortic
valve prevents backflow
To left
atrium
of blood into the left
ventricle from the aorta
8. Blood travels to the rest
of the body, returning
through the veins to the
Overall pathway of the blood through the heart
right atrium (step 1)
7.
48
Circulatory System
Composition of Blood
Blood is made up of plasma, red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood
cells (leukocytes), and platelets
Plasma
The Formed Elements
 Plasma – the watery portion
 The formed elements of the
of the blood containing
dissolved amino acids,
proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, vitamins, hormones,
electrolytes, and cellular
wastes
blood include erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and platelets
 Makes up about 55% of a
blood sample
49
Circulatory System
The Formed Elements
 Erythrocytes – transport oxygen and carbon dioxide,
make up approximately 45% of a blood sample
 Leukocytes – protect against disease, make up less
than 1% of a blood sample
 The five types of white blood cells are neutrophils,
eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes
 Platelets – cell fragments, less than half the size of an
erythrocyte. Helps control blood loss from broken
vessels
50
Circulatory System
Erythrocyte Structure and Function
Function
Structure
 Travel through the
 Erythrocytes are biconcave
bloodstream and transport
gases
discs, meaning that they are
thin near their centers and
thicker around their rims. This
adaptation increases the
surface area through which
gases can diffuse.
 Their shape allows them to
squeeze through narrow
capillaries
 Don’t have nuclei, which
provides more space in the cell
for hemoglobin molecules
51
Circulatory System
Open & Closed Circulatory Systems
Open Circulatory System
Closed Circulatory System
 Blood is pumped from the
 Blood is contained within
heart and enters body
cavities, where the tissues are
bathed in the blood
 No network of blood vessels
 Blood flows slowly because
there is no blood pressure.
The animal must move in
order to move the blood in its
body
blood vessels, it is not free in
a cavity
 Valves exist to prevent the
backflow of blood
52
Circulatory System
Open & Closed Circulatory Systems
Example: Open Circulatory System
 Arthropods and most
mollusks have an open
circulatory system
Example: Closed Circulatory System
 Found in vertebrates and
some invertebrates including
annelids, squids, and
octopuses
53
Circulatory System
Circulatory System in Fish
 Fish have a two-
chambered heart, one
atrium and one ventricle
 Deoxygenated blood
enters the heart and is
pumped to the gills. The
newly oxygenated blood
travels throughout the
body before returning to
the heart
54
Circulatory System
Circulatory System in Amphibians
 Amphibians have a three-
chambered heart with two
atria and one ventricle
 Blood coming from the lungs
goes to the left atrium. Blood
coming from the body goes to
the right atrium
 Both atria empty into the
ventricle, where some mixing
occurs
 The advantage of this system
is that there is high pressure
in vessels that lead to both
the lungs and body.
55
Circulatory System
Circulatory System in Reptiles
 Reptiles, like
amphibians, have a
three-chambered heart
 Two atria
 The ventricle is
partially divided to
reduce the mixing of
oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood
56
Circulatory System
Circulatory System in Birds and Mammals
 Four-chambered heart which
acts as two separate pumps
 After passing through the
body, blood is pumped under
high pressure to the lungs
 After returning from the
lungs, blood is pumped under
high pressure to the body
 High rate of oxygen-rich
blood flow through the body
enables birds and mammals to
maintain high activity levels
57
Circulatory System
Sickle Cell Disease
 Hemoglobin crystallizes in a low oxygen environment due
to an incorrect amino acid in the protein portion of
hemoglobin
 The red blood cells bend into a sickle shape, blocking
circulation in small vessels
 Symptoms:
 Joint pain
 Frequent infections
 Anemia
 Swelling in hands and feet
 Swelling of abdomen
58
Circulatory System
Sickle Cell Disease
 Statistics:
 Affects 90,000 to 100,000 Americans
 Occurs among about 1 in every 500 Black or AfricanAmerican births
 Sickle cell trait occurs among about 1 in 12 Blacks or
African Americans, provides resistance to malaria
 Treatment:
 A bone marrow transplant can completely cure sickle
cell disease but has a 15% risk of causing death
 The drug hydroxyurea reactivates production of a
slightly different form of hemoglobin, delays sickling
59
Circulatory System
Atherosclerosis
 Deposits of fatty materials, particularly cholesterol,
form on the inner lining of the arterial walls
 The deposits, called plaque, protrude into the lumens
of the vessels and interfere with blood flow
 Walls of affected arteries lose their elasticity and
become hardened
 Signs and Symptoms:
 Chest pain and tightness during activity
 Numbness or weakness in arms or legs
 Shortness of breath
60
Circulatory System
Atherosclerosis
 Approximately 14 million Americans have Coronary
Artery Disease (atherosclerosis is the main cause of
Coronary Artery Disease)
 Treatment:
 Lifestyle changes such as eating a healthy diet and
exercising
 Drugs that slow the effects of atherosclerosis
 Angioplasty (balloon treatment)
 Endarterectomy (surgical removal of fatty deposits)
61
Circulatory System
Circulatory System Reference Page
 Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook
(Chapter 14 – Blood, Chapter 15 – Cardiovascular System)
 http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20
102/bio%20102%20lectures/circulatory%20system/circulat.htm
 http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/data.html
 http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/153647-overview
62
Circulatory System
Reference Page (continued)
 Pictures















http://en.tcm-china.info/medical/human/75477_4.shtml
http://biologiabm.wordpress.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiology
http://www.beliefnet.com/healthandhealing/getcontent.aspx?cid=618443
http://adam.about.net/care/Step-2-The-components-of-blood.htm
http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/blood/red.html
http://www.netartsbaytoday.org/html/clams_.html
http://www.deshow.net/animal/Insect_photography_art_464.html
http://thefutureofthings.com/news/6276/frozen-organs-live-longer.html
http://animal-wildlife.blogspot.com/2011/09/octopus.html
http://sharonapbio-taxonomy.wikispaces.com/Animalia-Chordata--Fishes
http://dtc.pima.edu/~biology/182/lesson11/11step3/11step3page1.htm
http://zeitzer.com/biologysite/
http://www.chelationtherapyonline.com/articles/p198.htm
http://www.meghmiller.com/the-adventure-continues-an-unexpected-chapter/
63
64
Respiratory System
Respiratory System
 The primary function of
the respiratory system is
to supply the blood with
oxygen in order for the
blood to deliver oxygen
to all parts of the body
 Eliminates carbon
dioxide from the body in
order to maintain the pH
of the blood
65
Respiratory System
66
Respiratory System
Alveoli
 Alveoli have a structure
specialized for efficient
exchange of gases
 Walls are thin and made
of epithelial cells
 Large surface area to
volume ratio
 Surrounded by a
network of capillaries.
Oxygen diffuses through
the walls of alveoli and
enters into the
capillaries.
67
Respiratory System
Oxygen Transport in the Blood
 Oxygen enters the blood stream and is carried by red
blood cells
 In RBC’s, oxygen combines with hemoglobin to become
oxyhemoglobin
 When the RBC reaches the capillaries of the body cells,
the oxyhemoglobin breaks up and releases its oxygen,
becoming deoxyhemoglobin
 Oxygen is transported to cells of the body
68
Respiratory System
Carbon Dioxide Transport In Blood
 Carbon dioxide, a waste product created by cells,
passes through a membrane and into the bloodstream
 Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood as:
 Bicarbonate ions (70%)
 Bicarbonates of sodium and potassium
 Carbaminohemoglobin (15-25%)
 Carbon dioxide is removed from the bloodstream by
diffusion before the blood leaves the lungs
69
Respiratory System
Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream
Oxygen enters the
body through the
external nares of the
nose
 Passes through the:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx
Oropharynx
Passageway for air
and food
Laryngopharynx
Passageway for air
and food
6. Trachea
70
Respiratory System
Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream
 Oxygen enters the bronchi
7. Primary bronchi
8. Secondary bronchi
9. Tertiary bronchi
 Passes through the:
10. Intralobular bronchioles
11. Terminal bronchioles
12. Respiratory bronchioles
71
Respiratory System
Path of Oxygen into the Bloodstream
13. Oxygen enters the alveolar
ducts
14. Passes into the alveolar
sacs
15. Enters the alveoli
 Once oxygen enters the
alveoli, it diffuses through
the alveolar walls and enters
the blood through nearby
capillaries
 Oxygen reacts with
hemoglobin in a red blood
cell to form oxyhemoglobin
 Carried in the form of
oxyhemoglobin to cells of
the body
72
Respiratory System
Inhalation
 Atmospheric pressure is the force that moves air into
the lungs
 When the respiratory muscles are at rest, the pressures
on the inside of the lungs and on the outside of the
thoracic wall are about the same
 The external intercostals are the skeletal muscle
directly involved in breathing
73
Respiratory System
Boyle’s Law and Breathing
 Boyle’s Law involves the inverse relationships between
volume and pressure
 If the pressure inside the lungs and alveoli decreases, outside
air will be pushed into the airways by atmospheric pressure
 This is what happens during normal breathing, also involves
the action of the diaphragm
 The diaphragm contracts and move downward, while the
external intercostal muscles contract, increasing the size of
the thoracic cavity
 The pressure inside the lungs falls farther, and atmospheric
pressure forces more air into the body’s airways
74
Respiratory System
Exhalation
 As the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
relax, the elastic tissues cause the lungs to recoil and return
to their original shapes
 The abdominal organs spring back into their previous
shapes, pushing the diaphragm upward
 Surface tension causes the alveoli to shrink
 These actions cause the pressure inside the lungs to
increase about 1 mm Hg above atmospheric pressure
 The air inside the lungs is forced out through the respiratory
passages
 Normal resting expiration occurs without the contraction of
skeletal muscles, considered a passive process
75
Respiratory System
Asthma




Asthma is a chronic disease that affects the airways
The airways become swollen and narrowed
Produce extra mucus, breathing becomes difficult
Common symptoms:
 Coughing
 Wheezing
 Shortness of breath
 Asthma cannot be cured, but the symptoms can be controlled
by:
 Avoiding situations that may trigger an asthma attack
 Using long-term control medications to prevent flare-ups
 Using a quick-relief inhaler to control symptoms once they start
76
Respiratory System
Asthma Statistics
 An estimated 300 million
people worldwide suffer
from asthma
 250,000 annual deaths
caused by asthma
 Workplace conditions,
such as exposure to fumes,
gases, or dust, are
responsible for 11% of
asthma cases worldwide
 About 70% of people with
asthma also have allergies
77
Respiratory System
Pneumonia
 An inflammation of the lungs, caused by infection
 Caused by infection – bacteria, viruses, fungi, or
parasites
 Can range from mild to life-threatening
 Often is a complication of another condition, such as
the flu
 Concern for people:
 Older than 65
 With a chronic illness
 With a weak immune system
78
Respiratory System
Pneumonia
 Symptoms:
 Fever
 Cough
 Shortness of breath
 Sweating
 Headache
 Fatigue
 Estimated 500,000 cases of
 Treatment:
 Most bacterial
pneumonias can be
treated with antibiotics,
but antibiotic-resistant
strains are a growing
problem
 Best approach is to
prevent infection
pneumonia each year in
the U.S.
 40,000 deaths resulting
from pneumonia
79
Respiratory System
Respiratory System Reference Page
 Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook







(Chapter 19 – Respiratory System)
http://www.fi.edu/learn/heart/systems/respiration.html
http://www.preservearticles.com/201102264268/transport-ofoxygen-and-carbon-dioxide-through-blood-duringrespiration.html
http://www.ann.com.au/MedSci/oxygen.htm
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/asthma/DS00021
http://www.aaaai.org/about-the-aaaai/newsroom/asthmastatistics.aspx
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pneumonia/DS00135/DSECTI
ON=symptoms
https://www.askaamc.org/quality/quality_measures.php?cat=pneu
80
Respiratory System
Reference Page (continued)
 Pictures:
 http://www.healthcentral.com/asthma/h/respiratory-system-of-asthma




diagram.html
http://oac.med.jhmi.edu/res_phys/Encyclopedia/Alveoli/Alveoli.HTML
http://home.comcast.net/~pegglestoncbsd/respiratory.htm
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_respiratory_system
http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/sac
http://www.mediafreedominternational.org/2012/02/20/why-are-asthma-drugskilling-more-people-than-asthma/
81
82
Immune System
Immune System
 Function: protects the
body from bacterial,
parasitic, fungal, and
viral infections, as well as
from the growth of
tumor cells by
recognizing and
responding to antigens
 Body Parts Involved in
Immunity
 Bone marrow
 Thymus
 Spleen
 Lymph nodes
83
Immune System
Recognition of Pathogens
 Cells in our body recognize pathogens by their
antigens
 Antigens are molecules (usually proteins) on the surface
of cells and viruses. Nonliving substances such as toxins,
chemicals, and drugs can also have antigens.
 The body has antigens that are seen as normal to the
immune system. Therefore, the immune system
usually doesn’t react against the body’s own antigens.
 The immune system recognizes foreign antigens and
destroys the substance that contains them
84
Immune System
Recognition of Pathogens
 After exposure to a foreign
antigen and destroying the
substance, the body creates
antibodies that will
specifically recognize the
foreign antigen it has been
exposed to
 The antibodies will
recognize the antigen and
trigger the immune system
to agglutinate and destroy
the foreign substance with
that particular antigen
85
Immune System
Innate and Acquired Immunity
Innate Immunity
Acquired Immunity
 The defense system the body was born
 Acquired immunity is
with
 Protects the body against all foreign
antigens
 Innate immunity involves barriers that
keep harmful materials from entering
the body
 Examples:
 Cough reflex
 Enzymes in tears and skin oils
 Mucus
 Skin
 Stomach acid
 If an antigen gets past these barriers, it
is attacked and destroyed by other
parts of the immune system
immunity that develops with
exposure to various antigens
 The immune system builds a
defense that is specific to that
antigen
 Examples:
 Immunity produced by a
vaccination
 The body produces antigens
after being exposed to a virus
86
Immune System
Active and Passive Immunity
Active Immunity
 Occurs when a person is exposed
to a pathogen, develops the
disease, and becomes immune as
a result of the primary immune
disease
 Can be caused by a vaccine
 Vaccines are used to expose the
body to a particular antigen for
health purposes
 Antigens are usually killed or
severely weakened to decrease
their potency
 The body stores T cells as memory
cells
 Way of artificially acquiring
Passive Immunity
 The body has immunity to
particular antigens as a result
of genetic traits passed on
from parents to offspring
 Offspring are immune to the
particular pathogenic threat
 Example: pregnancy, in which
certain antibodies are passed
from the mother into the
baby’s bloodstream
immunity
 Example: vaccines
87
Immune System
Humoral and Cell Mediated Immunity
Humoral Immunity
Cell Mediated Immunity
 Humoral immunity involves
 Cell mediated immunity
fighting infectious agents in
the body tissues in the blood
 Managed by the B cells with
the help of T cells
deals with the body cells that
have been infected with some
foreign bodies or antigens
 Managed by T cells
Both humoral and cell mediated immunity
feature impressive complexity and an
interrelationship that enables them to modify
the immune reactions to almost any kind of
antigen or molecule
88
Immune System
B and T Lymphocytes
B Lymphocytes
T Lymphocytes
 Used in the production of
 Mainly used in identifying
antibodies
 When they encounter a new
antigen, the B Lymphocytes
divide to form plasma cells and
memory cells
antigens and releasing
chemicals that attract
macrophages to destroy the
antigen
 The memory cell remembers
the antigen and which
antibody to use for the specific
antigen
 The plasma cell makes
antibodies to fight a particular
antigen
89
Immune System
Antibiotics and Bacteria
 Antibiotics work by interrupting metabolic pathways
in prokaryotic cells. Some bacteria prevent the proper
formation of a cell wall, while others prevent bacteria
from completing cell division
 Antibiotics are not effective against viruses because
viruses lack metabolic pathways. They reproduce by
infecting eukaryotic cells and hijacking their
metabolic pathways, which are not affected by
antibiotics
90
Immune System
Allergies
 Allergies occur when the immune system reacts to a foreign
substance such as pollen, bee venom or pet dander
 In a person with allergies, the immune system makes
antibodies that identify the allergen as something harmful,
even though it isn’t. When a person comes into contact
with the allergen, the immune system reacts by inflaming
the skin, sinuses, airways, or digestive system
 Allergies can range from minor irritation to anaphylaxis, a
potentially life-threatening emergency
 Allergies can't be cured, but a number of treatments can
help relieve allergy symptoms
91
Immune System
Allergies
 Symptoms:
 Hay Fever


 Statistics:
 1 in 5 people have allergies
Congestion
Itchy, runny nose
 Food Allergy
 Swelling of the lips, tongue,
face, or throat
 Insect Allergy
 Cough, chest tightness,
wheezing, or shortness of
breath
 Anaphylaxis
 Drug Allergy
 Hives
 Rash
92
Immune System
HIV/AIDS
 AIDS is a chronic, potentially
life-threatening condition
caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
 HIV damages the immune
system and interferes with the
body’s ability to fight disease
 There is no cure for HIV/AIDS,
but there are medications that
can dramatically slow the
progression of the disease
 These drugs have reduced
AIDS deaths in many
developed nations
 HIV is a sexually transmitted
disease
 Can also be spread by:
 Contact with infected blood
 Mother to child during
pregnancy
 Breastfeeding
 It can take years before HIV
weakens the immune system
enough to cause AIDS
93
Immune System
HIV/AIDS
 Symptoms of AIDS:
 Heavy night sweats
 Shaking chills or high fever for
several weeks
 Coughing and shortness of
breath
 Chronic diarrhea
 White spots or unusual lesions
on the tongue or in the mouth
 Headaches
 Persistent, unexplained
fatigue
 Blurred and distorted vision
 Weight loss
 Skin rashes or bumps
 Statistics:
 An estimated 1,178,350 people
age 13 and older were living
with HIV infection in the
United States at the end of
2008

20% had undiagnosed HIV
infections
94
Immune System
Immune System Reference Page









http://www.thebody.com/content/art1788.html
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000821.htm
http://www.biology-online.org/1/11_cell_defense_2.htm
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0858765.html
http://cellmediatedimmunity.net/humoral-vs-cell-mediatedimmunity-system
http://ibbiology.wetpaint.com/page/Explain+why+antibiotics+a
re+effective+against+bacteria+but+not+against+viruses
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/allergies/DS01118/DSECTIO
N=symptoms
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hiv-aids/DS00005
http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/basic.htm#hivest
95
Immune System
Reference Page (continued)
 Pictures
 http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Immune/Antigen.htm
 http://abrahame.wikispaces.com/08+Immunology
 http://www.sinusinfectionhelp.com/hay_fever.html
 http://www.personal.psu.edu/afr3/blogs/SIOW/2011/10/good-news-for-hiv-
victims.html
96
97
Excretory System
Excretory System
 The excretory system
functions in removing
nitrogenous substances
and other wastes from
the blood in the form of
urine
 Regulates certain
metabolic processes
 Includes the kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder,
and urethra
98
Excretory System
Nitrogen Excretion - Ammonia
 Fish and amphibians excrete nitrogen in the form of
ammonia
 Ammonia is very toxic, and would require a large
amount of water to dilute in the body of mammals and
reptiles, but..
 Animals such as fish and amphibians have constant
access to water
 Rather than breaking down nitrogenous waste to a less
toxic form, fish and amphibians are able to flush their
nitrogenous wastes frequently and primarily as
ammonia
99
Excretory System
Nitrogen Excretion - Urea
 Mammals metabolize
ammonia into urea, a less
toxic form of nitrogenous
waste
 Requires energy to build
urea, but mammals don’t
need as much water to
dilute urea
 Allows mammals to
conserve water, mammals
often don’t have constant
access to water
 Less toxic for mammals to
store
100
Excretory System
Nitrogen Excretion – Uric Acid
 Reptiles and birds excrete
nitrogen in the form of
uric acid
 Contains four nitrogen
atoms per molecule
 Requires more energy to
make than urea, but
eliminates more nitrogen
per molecule
 Less toxic than urea,
requires very little water to
dilute
 Allows birds and reptiles
to conserve the greatest
amount of water
101
Excretory System
102
Excretory System
103
Excretory System
The Nephron
 The nephron is the
functional unit of the
kidneys
 Consists of a renal
corpuscle and a renal
tubule
 Main function is to
control the composition
of body fluids and
remove wastes from the
blood
104
Excretory System
The Nephron
 Parts of a nephron
 Glomerulus
 Bowman’s capsule
 Proximal convoluted
tubules
 Loop of Henlé
 Distal convoluted
tubules
 Collecting duct
105
Excretory System
Glomerulus and Bowman’s Capsule
 Site where filtration takes place
 Blood from the renal artery is forced into the
glomerulus under high pressure
 Most of the liquid is forced out into the surrounding
Bowman’s capsule
 This process won’t work properly in people with
extremely low blood pressure
106
Excretory System
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
 The site where glucose is reabsorbed from the filtrate
and put back into the bloodstream
 If glucose was not absorbed, it would end up in the urine

Happens in people suffering from diabetes
107
Excretory System
Loop of Henlé
 The Loop of Henlé is the part of the nephron where
water is reabsorbed
 The kidney cells in this region spend all of their time
pumping sodium ions
 This causes the region of the kidney called the medulla
to be very salty
108
Excretory System
Distal Convoluted Tubule
 The site of the nephron where most of the salts in the
filtrate are reabsorbed
Collecting Duct
 Collecting ducts run through the medulla and are
surrounded by loops of Henlé.
 In the collecting duct, filtrate is turned into urine as
water and salts are removed from it
 Called a collecting duct because it collects the liquid
produced by many nephrons.
109
Excretory System
Glomerular Filtration
 Urine formation begins with glomerular filtration
 The filtration of materials from blood plasma
 Filters water and other small dissolved molecules and
ions out of the glomerular capillaries and into the
glomerular capsules
 Large molecules, like proteins, are restricted because of
their size
 The glomerular capsule receives the resulting
glomerular filtrate

Contains water, glucose, amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine,
creatinine, and sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium,
bicarbonate, phosphate, and sulfate ions
110
Excretory System
Tubular Reabsorption
 Tubular reabsorption is the process by which filtrate
is moved from the renal tubules back into the blood in
response to the body’s needs
 Can occur by passive or active transport
 Usually all of the glucose in the filtrate is reabsorbed
because there are enough carrier molecules to transport
it

As a result, normally no glucose found in urine
 Normally only a trace of amino acids in the urine
because most amino acids are actively transported out of
the glomerular filtrate
 About 70% of the filtered sodium, other ions, and water
are reabsorbed
111
Excretory System
Tubular Secretion and Excretion
 During tubular secretion,
certain substances move
from the plasma of the
peritubular capillary into
the fluid of the renal
tubule
 Reverse process of tubular
reabsorption
 Helps control blood pH
 Substances may include
penicillin, histamine,
phenobarbital, hydrogen
ions, ammonia, and
potassium ions
 Hydrogen ions are actively
secreted throughout the
renal tubule, causing urine
to (usually) be acidic by the
time it is excreted
 Excretion
 The process by which
urine exits the body
 After substances have
been secreted and entered
the kidney tubules, they
are eliminated from the
body through the urethra
112
Excretory System
Gout
 Occurs when high levels of
uric acid in the blood
cause crystals to build up
in a joint or surrounding
tissue
 Uric acid normally
dissolves in the blood and
passes through the kidneys
into the urine
 Body produces too much
uric acid, or the kidneys
excrete too little uric acid
 Symptoms
 Intense joint pain, usually
in the joint of the big toe
 Pain most severe within
the first 12 to 24 hours of
onset
 Lingering discomfort
 Inflammation and redness
113
Excretory System
Gout
 Statistics:
 Occurs in approximately
840 out of every 100,000
people in the US
 9 times more common
in men than women
 Treatment:
 Usually involves
medications to prevent
future attacks and reduce
the risk of complications
from gout



Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drugs
Corticosteroids
Medications that block uric
acid production
114
Excretory System
Urinary Tract Infection
 A urinary tract infection
(UTI) is an infection that
begins in the urinary
system
 Most UTI’s involve the
lower urinary tract, the
bladder and the urethra
 Can become serious if it
spreads to the kidneys
 Symptoms:
 Strong, persistent urge
to urinate
 A burning sensation
when urinating
 Urine that appears
cloudy
 Pelvic pain, in women
 Rectal pain, in men
115
Excretory System
Urinary Tract Infection
 Statistics:
 Women are at greater
risk of developing a
urinary tract infection
than are men
 1 in 5 women will get a
UTI during their lifetime
 Treatment:
 Antibiotics are the
typical treatment for a
urinary tract infections
 People can take steps to
reduce the chance of
getting a urinary tract
infection
116
Excretory System
Excretory System Reference Page
 Hole’s Human Anatomy & Physiology Textbook






(Chapter 20 – Urinary System)
http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/dox/nitrogenouswaste.ht
ml
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/gout/DS00090
http://www.whathealth.com/gout/incidence.html
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/urinary-tractinfection/DS00286/DSECTION=symptoms
http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/u/urinary_tract_infections
/stats.htm
http://www.purchon.com/biology/kidney.htm#bowmans
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Excretory System
Reference Page (continued)
 Pictures:
 http://home.roadrunner.com/~lubehawk/BioHELP!/hexcrsys.htm
 http://www.ehow.com/how_6613609_paint-zebra-decorated-room.html
 http://kieran4332.webs.com/coyotepack.htm
 http://true-wildlife.blogspot.com/2011/02/desert-tortoise.html
 http://www.wellingtonpapers.com/2009/08/10-things-alex-kliment/
 http://www.edu.pe.ca/threeoaks/teacherpages/higginbotham/Biology%20521%20W
ebpage/resources/chapter12images/chapter12images.htm
 http://www.beltina.org/health-dictionary/nephron-function-kidney-definition.html
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