Transcript Sijie

Human Physiology Project
Sijie Mao
Biology 5
Nervous System
Central Nervous System
-Brain: receives and processes information,
controls body, thought
-Brain stem: involuntary functions
- Spinal cord: connects brain to body, reflex
responses
Peripheral Nervous System
- sensory nerves: transmits to brain
- motor nerves: receives impulses from
central (involuntary/conscious)
D. The functions of the nervous system
- The communication system, controls and
coordinates functions in the body and
responds to external/internal stimuli
D.The role of neurons in transmitting
electrochemical impulses
- Environment/neuron stimulates neuron
- Electrical impulse travels along neuron when a
portion of its cellular membrane temporarily
changes charge
- Impulse continues on to another neuron/cell
with the release of neurotransmitters at axon
terminals (chemicals that stimulate an impulse in
the next cell)
E. The roles of sensory neurons, interneurons,
and motor neurons in sensation, thought and
response
- Sensation: sensory neurons carry information
collected from the sensory receptors/nerves to the
central nervous system
- Thought: interneurons facilitate communication
in the central nervous system, connecting sensory
and motor neurons to generate a response
- Response: motor neurons carry commands
from the central nervous system to the muscles
and glands
B. How the nervous system meditates
communication between different parts of
the body and the body’s interaction with the
environment
- internal/external information gathered by
nerves/ sensory receptors throughout the
body
- nerves relay info through electrochemical
impulses to central nervous system
- information is processed, response
command sent through nerves
- nerves relay commands to muscles/glands
for response
C. How feedback loops in the nervous
system regulate conditions in the body
- body tries to maintain homeostasis (stable
internal conditions)
- Nerves stimulated by changes in conditions
i.e.: temperature
- Central nervous system stimulates release
in chemicals/change in the body’s activity
- Causes body to return to a stable condition
- Stops nervous system response as
stimulus/stability restored
Skeletal System
Bone
Functions:
- supports body/protects internal organs
- pulled/released by muscle to produce
movement
- store minerals
- blood cell formation site
Structure:
- cells and protein fibers surrounded by
calcium deposits
Bone marrow:
- red marrow produces red blood cells, white
blood cells and platelets
Cartilage
Functions:
- connective tissue
- flexibility
- lengthens bone when it grows at the growth
plates and ossification occurs
Ossification
- cartilage is replaced by bone after special
cells deposit minerals
Structure:
cells surrounded by flexible protein fibers
Joints
Functions:
- allows bones to attach to each other and
move
- include immovable, slightly movable and
freely movable joints
Ligaments
Functions:
- protects and holds freely movable joints
together
Muscular System
Skeletal muscle
Functions:
-allow voluntary movement i.e.: legs, arms
etc
Structure:
- attached to bone
- striped
- long/thin cells
- many nuclei
Smooth muscle
Functions:
- involuntary movement i.e.: stomach, blood
vessels, intestines etc
Structure:
- in hollow structures
- spindle shape
- one nucleus
Cardiac muscle
Functions:
- movement of the heart
Structure:
- in heart
- one/two nucleus
- striped
H. The cellular and molecular basis of
muscle contraction, including the roles of
actin, myosin, Ca+2, and ATP
- Motor neurons stimulates muscle cells
with neurotransmitters (acetylcholine) to
contract
- Impulses release Ca+2 allowing thin
actin to slide over thick myosin
filaments which shortens the muscle
- ATP provides energy to power the
contraction
Movement
- Muscles contract/relax to cause
opposite movements
- Connect to bones with tendon to pull
bones with joints
Integumentary System
Skin
- Forms a covering over
the body
• Epidermis
Functions:
- Protection against
infection, sun and injury
Structure:
- Outer layer of skin
- Dead cell outer layer,
live cell inner layer
- Tough, flexible,
waterproof
- Constantly replaced
• Dermis
Functions:
- role in temperature
regulation:
blood vessels
expand/narrow, perspiration
Structure:
- Inner layer
- Contains oil and sweat
glands, blood vessels, nerve
endings and hair follicles
Hair
Functions:
- protection from the sun, particles from
entering the body i.e.: nostrils, ears
- temperature regulation: insulation
Structure:
- Rapidly dividing cells
- Columns of dead cells filled with keratin
Nails
Functions:
- Protect finger and toe tips
Structure:
- Rapidly dividing cells
- Cells filled with keratin form a plate
Circulatory System
Heart
Functions:
-pumps blood through circulatory system
Structure:
- hollow organ
- mainly composed of muscle
- myocardium contract to pump blood
- separated left (oxygen-rich blood) from
right (oxygen-poor) by septum
- 4 chambers: 2 atria (receive blood)
2 ventricles (pump out blood)
- contains valves between to allow blood to
flow in one direction
- 2 pumps: right pumps to lungs
left pumps to body
Blood
Functions:
- collects nutrients/waste from tissues
- regulates internal conditions i.e.:
temperature
- aids against infection/disease
- repair injury
Structure
- plasma: fluid containing proteins/nutrients/
hormones/ wastes
- blood cells :
red (carry oxygen)
white (attack foreign substances)
platelets (clotting)
Arteries
- Transports oxygen-rich blood through the
body
- Walls contain muscle/connective tissue to
push blood through
Veins
- Transports oxygen-poor blood back to the
heart
- Walls contain muscle/connective tissue to
push blood through
Capillaries
- Brings oxygen/nutrient-rich blood to the
body’s tissues (diffuses out of capillary
walls)
- Absorbs carbon dioxide/waste
- Small, thin blood vessels
A. How the complementary activity of major
body systems provides cells with oxygen and
nutrients and removes toxic waste products
such as carbon dioxide
- Heart pumps nutrient-rich blood from the
respiratory/digestive systems throughout the
body through blood vessels
- Blood vessels collect wastes and carry
oxygen-poor blood to the heart where it is
pumped back to the lungs to absorb oxygen
and release carbon dioxide waste
- Blood is pumped through the excretory
system to filter out wastes
Respiratory System
Air Passage
- Enters through nose/mouth (filtered
mucus/hairs)
- Travels to pharynx (throat) the trachea
(windpipe)
- Epiglottis prevents food from passing
down the trachea
- To the bronchi to the lungs
Lungs
- Bronchi leads to smaller bronchioles in the lungs
- Continue to divide into smaller bronchioles until they end at alveoli (air sacs)
- Oxygen diffuses out of alveoli to capillaries to be pumped through the body
- Carbon dioxide from capillaries diffuse into alveoli to be transported out the body
Breathing
- Partially involuntary function signaled by carbon dioxide levels
- Air moving into and out the lungs
- Enabled by air pressure:
Inhale: diaphragm contracts, exterior pressure exceeds interior, air pulled in
Exhale: diaphragm relaxes, interior pressure exceeds exterior, air pushed out
A. How the complementary activity of major
body systems provides cells with oxygen and
nutrients and removes toxic waste products
such as carbon dioxide
- Respiratory system collects oxygen
- Collected by blood vessels to be pumped
throughout the body by the circulatory
system
- Carbon dioxide returns through blood
vessels to be exhaled
- Reabsorb oxygen from the lungs
Digestive System
F. The individual functions and sites of
secretion of digestive enzymes (amylases,
proteases, nucleases, lipases), stomach acid,
and bile salts.
- Amylase: salivary glands/pancreas, breaks
down starches
- Protease: stomach/pancreas, breaks down
protein
- Nuclease: pancreas, breaks down nucleic
acid
- Lipase: pancreas, breaks down fat
- Stomach acid: gastric glands (lining the
stomach) breaks proteins into smaller
fragments/ begins break down of fats
- Bile salts: liver, breaks down fat/fat-soluble
vitamins
Mouth
- Teeth: breaks food down into smaller
fragments
- Saliva: begins chemical digestion of
starches, kills bacteria, aids in chewing
Stomach
- Begins chemical digestion of proteins/fat
- Stomach muscles contract to churn and mix
food
Pancreas
- Releases enzymes to break down
carbohydrates, protein, fat and nucleic acids
into the small intestine
- Neutralizes stomach acid to allow enzymes
to function
Liver
- Produces bile
Small Intestine
- Duodenum: food mixes with enzymes/bile from the liver and pancreas, food is converted to nutrient
molecules
- Jejunum and ileum: nutrients are absorbed through the walls by capillaries
Large Intestine
- Water extracted through walls
- Indigestible materials remain in the colon to be digested by bacteria
- Waste passes out the body through the rectum
A. How the complementary activity of major
body systems provides cells with oxygen and
nutrients and removes toxic waste products
such as carbon dioxide
- Food is broken down into nutrients useable
by the body by the digestive system
- Nutrients pass through blood vessels to be
pumped throughout the body by the
circulatory system
- Wastes are filtered out of the blood and
removed by the kidneys and the excretory
system
Excretory System
Wastes
- Result from cellular activities ie: excess
salts, carbon dioxide, hydrogen ions, urea
(toxic chemical)
Skin
- Excretes excess water/salts/urea in sweat
Lungs
- Excrete carbon dioxide
Kidneys
G. The homeostatic role of the kidneys in the
removal of nitrogenous wastes
- Filtration: waste-laden blood enters the
kidney, wastes flow into capillary walls of
Bowman’s capsule and separated from the
blood
- Reabsorption: water/salts are reabsorbed by
active transport/osmosis
- able to regulate water/nutrient content in
blood:
reabsorb less water/salts when high
water/salt concentration
- maintain proper blood pH (extract
hydrogen ions)
- Secretion: waste (urine) remains to flow
into collecting ducts to the bladder, later
excreted
- purified blood recirculates
Liver
G. The homeostatic role of
the liver in blood
detoxification and glucose
balance
- Removes toxic chemicals
from the blood
- Removes glucose from
the blood when stimulated
by insulin and converts it
into glycogen for storage
- Converts glycogen into
glucose when stimulated
by glucagon and releases it
into the blood
A. How the complementary activity of major
body systems provides cells with oxygen and
nutrients and removes toxic waste products
such as carbon dioxide.
- Circulatory system pumps blood
throughout the body
- Blood collects wastes
- Waste-laden blood is pumped to the
excretory system for waste removal
Endocrine System
Hormones
- Enzymes that travel through the blood
stream and affect cell activity
- Bind to specific chemical receptors on
cells
- Creates a longer, gradual response
- Steroid:
affects gene expression
- Nonsteroid:
activates/inhibits cell activities
I. How hormones (including digestive,
reproductive, osmoregulatory) provide
internal feedback mechanisms for
homeostasis at the cellular level and in
whole organisms.
- Feedback and complementary action
- Homeostasis: inbalance causes
hormones release to restore balance,
release stopped/counteracted by
opposing hormone after balance is
restored
Endocrine glands
- Release hormones into the
blood stream
Hypothalamus
- Controls hormone secretions
of the pituitary gland by
releasing releasing hormones
- Responds to sensory
information from the nervous
system and hormone levels
Pituitary gland
- Secretes regulatory
hormones ie: growth hormone
- Controls other glands
Thyroid gland
- Regulates metabolism:
secretes thyroxine to increase cellular
respiration
- Regulate calcium levels:
Secretes calcitonin to decrease calcium
levels in blood
Parathyroid gland
- Regulates calcium levels:
Secretes parathyroid hormone to increases
calcium levels (more absorption and
reabsorption)
Adrenal glands
- Controls rate of metabolism
- Regulates reabsorbtion/excretion of ions
- Secretes adrenaline:
allows body to prepare for and deal with
stress (fight or flight situation) ie: increase in
body activity, energy
Pancreas
- Regulates blood sugar levels:
secretes insulin to remove and store sugar from
blood
secretes glucogen to release sugar into blood
Gonads
- Ovaries/testes:
produce gametes (sex cells)
secrete sex hormones
C. How feedback loops in the endocrine system
regulates conditions in the body
- Temperature/ metabolism: thyroxine (increases
cellular activity) level is low, stimulates thyroid
releasing hormone-release to stimulate thyroxine
release, thyroxine level becomes high, thyroid
releasing hormone-release stops
- Water balance: decrease in water level stimulates
thirst/hormone release to slow water removal from
blood by kidneys, once water level is restored
hormone release slows, increasing water removal
Male Reproductive System
- Matures during puberty when FSH
and LH hormones stimulate the
production of testosterone
Testes
- Site of sperm production
Epididymis
- Site of storage/maturation of sperm
Vas deferens
- Transport sperm to urethra
- Site of addition of fluids by
adjoining glands, becomes semen
Urethra and Penis
- Delivery/ release site of sperm from
body
Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
- Matures during puberty when
FSH and LH hormones are
released that stimulate the
production of estrogen and
ovulation
Ovaries
- Store and releases egg
follicles
Fallopian tubes
- Site of fertilization
- Transports to uterus
Uterus
- Nourishes/protects fertilized
egg
Vagina
- Leads to the exterior of the
body
Menstrual cycle
Follicular phase
- low estrogen levels stimulate FSH and LH
hormones release
- stimulates an egg follicle to mature
- estrogen levels rise as follicle matures
- causes uterine lining to thicken for possible
fertilized egg
Ovulation
- releasing hormone releases FSH and LH
hormones
- causes egg follicle to rupture and release
egg into a Fallopian tube
Luteal phase
- ruptured follicle releases estrogen
- further stimulates uterine lining build-up
- release of progesterone stimulates
completes preparation for fertilized egg
Fertilization
- fertilized egg
- divides and implants into uterine lining
for further development
- ruptured follicle continues hormone
release
Menstruation
- unfertilized egg
- hormone release decreases
- uterine lining detaches and is shed with
unfertilized egg through vagina
- return to low estrogen levels
- stimulates beginning of another
menstrual cycle
Immune System
Disease
- change that disrupts normal body functions
- inherited, environmental, bacteria, virus,
fungi, parasites
D. There are important differences between
bacteria and viruses with respect to their
requirements for growth and replication, the
body's primary defenses against bacterial and
viral infections, and effective treatments of
these infections
Bacteria: living organism must absorb
nutrients, complex and able to replicate
itself, humoral immunity, treated by
antibiotics that interfere with cell processes
Virus: nonliving, use host cells to replicate,
causes host cells to burst/not fulfill function,
cell meditated immunity, antiviral drugs that
prevent ability to invade/multiply in cells
Lymph System
- vessels collects fluid lost by blood in tissue
and returns to circulatory system
- absorb fat nutrients
- nodes filter, trap bacteria/microorganisms
- organs filter blood/store white blood cells
Immune System
Nonspecific Defense
Skin:
A. The role of the skin in providing nonspecific defenses against infection.
- Impenetrable barrier to most pathogens
- Oil and sweat glands form an acidic environment which kills many bacteria
Other: saliva, sweat, tears, stomach acid kill bacteria, mucus and hair trap pathogens
Inflammatory response:
- white blood cells leak into infected tissues and destroy pathogens
- increase in body temperature (fever), pathogens killed by increased temperature, speeds up white blood
cell response/repair
Interferon: virus infected cells produce proteins that slow viral infection by blocking replication and
production of viral proteins
Specific defense
F. The roles of phagocytes, B-lymphocytes, and Tlymphocytes in the immune system
-Phagocytes: white blood cell that engulfs/destroys
pathogens
-B-lymphocytes: produce antibodies
-T-lymphocytes: assist in activating plasma cells to make
antibodies and attack/destroy cell membranes of pathogens
Humoral immunity:
- B cells produce different antibodies
- Pathogen enters the body, its antigen
is recognized by some B cells
- Become plasma cells (produce large
numbers of antibodies)
B. The role of antibodies in the body's
response to infection
- Each shaped like Y, containing two
antigen binding sites
- Bind to antigens of pathogens and
link many bacteria together
- Phagocytes attracted and destroy
linked bacteria
Cell meditated immunity
- T cells attack pathogens with specific
antigens
Permanent immunity
- Once exposed to pathogen, body retains
memory B and T cells producing antibodies
against it
- Allows stronger/quicker response
Active immunity
C. How vaccination protects an individual
from infectious diseases
- Weakened/mild form of pathogen is
injected
- Immune system creates antibodies against
pathogen
- Readies bodies against disease without
serious illness
E. Why an individual with a compromised immune system (for example, a person with AIDS) may
be unable to fight off and survive infections by microorganisms that are usually benign.
- Weakened immune system unable to respond against previously minor pathogens
AIDS:
- HIV virus replicates within immune system cells, taking over and later killing them when they
burst
- Gradually most T cells are killed
- Body is unable to mount resistance against pathogens
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