Transcript ANATOMICAL TERMINOLGY

Anatomy &
Physiology I
DR. J. SCOTT
BROWN
[email protected]
[email protected]
LAB EXERCISE 1 & 8
CHAPTER 1
THE HUMAN BODY
MEMBRANES
• Tips on How to Succeed in Your A&P Course
• Attend all lectures, labs, and study
sessions
• Set up a study schedule
• Devote a block of time each day
• Practice memorization
• Avoid shortcuts
• Read your lecture and lab assignments
before class
• Set up study groups
• Do not procrastinate
Tips on How to Succeed in Your A&P Course
Why do people procrastinate?
*Got away with it in high school!!
*Work better under pressure!
*Got too far behind, why bother?
*Some enjoy the rush of almost failing
and trying to “pull it out at the end”
*Others stay busy at studying, but never
actually study
--Closet example
CHOOSE HIGH PRIORITIES OVER
LOW PRIORITIES
PROCRASTINATION RESULTS IN ANXIETY, GUILT
AND WORRY
After people truly work will they have positive
emotions
CONCLUSION:
HARD WORK IS
GOOD FOR ME!!
HARD WORK IS
GOOD FOR ME!!
HARD WORK IS
GOOD FOR ME!!
Tips on How to Succeed in Your A&P Course
Know your situation
Don’t set yourself up for failure
Set realistic goals
Know your limitations
 Write down limitations and propose
solutions
SITUATION
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Work
Set up exact study times
Children
Spouse, Parents, Daycare
Demanding Other Sit down and talk
A&P in Perspective
• Learning Outcomes
• Describe the universal characteristics
of living things.
• Define anatomy and physiology, and
describe macroscopic and
microscopic anatomy.
• Explain the relationship between
structure and function.
Necessary Life Functions
• Responsiveness & Adaptability
• The ability to sense changes in the environment and
respond to them
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Increase in size and duplication.
• Note: Sexual reproduction-Not necessary for INDIVIDUAL
survival, but necessary for survival of the species
Asexual reproduction (mitosis) is essential
Necessary Life Functions
• Movement
• Locomotion, propulsion, peristalsis and
contractility.
• Metabolism
• All the chemical reactions that occur in the body
• Respiration – use oxygen to create ATP
• Digestion – breakdown of ingested food
substances
• Excretion – removal of wastes from the body
Survival Needs
• Oxygen
• Necessary for metabolic reactions
• Water
• Provides the necessary environment for
chemical reactions
• Normal body temperature
• Necessary for chemical reactions to occur at
life-sustaining rates
• Atmospheric pressure
• Required for proper breathing and gas
exchange in the lungs
Survival Needs
• Nutrients
• Needed for energy and cell building
• Energy must be replaced when used
• For animals
−Absorption of oxygen from
atmosphere through respiration
−Absorption of various chemicals
from environment
The study of anatomy (form) and
physiology (function)
• Anatomy (“Cutting open”)
• The study of the structure of body parts
and their relationships to one another
• Gross or macroscopic
• Microscopic
• Developmental
• Physiology
• The study of the function of the body’s
structural machinery
Gross Anatomy
• Gross anatomy, or
macroscopic anatomy,
examines large, visible
structures
• Surface
• Study of internal structures
as they relate to the overlying
skin (external features)
• Regional
• All structures in one part of
the body
(Heart is located in the
thoracic cavity)
• Systemic
• Gross anatomy of the body
studied by system (Circulatory
vessels - heart or blood )
Microscopic Anatomy
• Cytology
• Study of the cell
• Histology
• Study of tissues
Developmental Anatomy
Traces structural changes throughout life
Embryology
Study of developmental
changes of the body before birth
Specialized Branches of Anatomy
• Pathological anatomy
• Study of structural changes caused by
disease
• Radiographic anatomy
• Study of internal structures visualized by
specialized scanning procedures such as
X-ray, MRI, and CT scans
• Molecular biology
• Study of anatomical structures at a
subcellular level
Anatomy and Physiology
• Physiology
• Study of Function
• Cell physiology
• Processes within and between cells
• Organ physiology
• Functions of specific organs
• Systemic physiology
• Functions of an organ system
• Pathological physiology
• Effects of diseases
Physiology
• Understanding physiology also
requires a knowledge of biology,
chemistry and physics, which
explains
• Electrical currents
• Blood pressure
• The way muscle uses bone for
movement
• The heartbeat
Physiology of the Heartbeat
Form and function are interrelated
• Physiology and anatomy are
closely interrelated both
theoretically and practically
• Anatomical details significant
because each has an effect on
function
• Physiological mechanisms
understood through underlying
structural relationships
Principle of
Complementarity
• Function always reflects
structure
• What a structure can do
depends on its specific form
• Therefore,
•
Structure determines function
Examples of Form & Function
• Elbow joint (Macroscopic level)
• Functions like a hinge
− Movement is forward and away from your
shoulder
− Movement in one plane only. No twisting
Examples of Form & Function
• Chemical
messengers
and cellular
receptors
Hinge joint
(microscopic level)
• Cells communicate
using specifically
shaped molecules
called chemical
messengers
• Receptors on target
cells receive the
message if the
molecule fits the
shape of receptor
Each chemical compound
has a specific size and
three-dimensional shape.
Chemical messengers
come in a variety of sizes
and shapes; in general,
they are released by one
cell to affect other cells.
Chemical messengers are detected
when they attach, or bind, to a
receptor that has the proper shape.
Binding creates a new structure—
messenger and receptor—and the
entire complex often changes
shape as a result. This can change
the function of the receptor. In this
case, the binding of the messenger
leads to the opening of a
passageway through the plasma
membrane.
Levels of Organization
• Learning Outcomes
• Describe various types of cells in the
human body and explain the basic
principles of the cell theory.
• Define histology and explain the
interrelationships among the various types
of tissues.
• Identify the 11 organ systems of the human
body, and describe the major functions of
each.
Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical
• Atoms combined to form molecules
• Cellular
• Cells are made of molecules
• Tissue
• Consists of similar types of cells
• Organ
• Made up of different types of tissues
• Organ system
• Consists of different organs that work closely
together
• Organisms
• Made up of the organ systems
Levels of Structural Organization
Heart
Cellular Level
Chemical and Molecular Levels
Heart muscle
cell
Complex protein molecule
Atoms in combination
Protein filaments
Levels of structural organization
Tissue Level
Cardiac muscle
tissue
Organ Level
The heart
The
cardiovascular
system
Organ system
level
Organism
level
Cells
• Free-living cells
• Smallest independent organisms
• Most plants and animals are
multicellular
• Human body
• Trillions of cells
• An estimated 200 different types
– Average size
--1/25,000 of an inch
Cells
• Human life depends on cells working
together
• Each cell responds to its local
environment independently
• Cells in different parts of the body are
coordinated and controlled
Figure 1.4
1
Tissues
•
•
•
Collections of cells and cell products performing
specific functions are tissues
Histology (histos, tissue)
• Study of tissues
Four primary tissue types
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Neural
EXTRACELLULAR
MATERIAL
AND FLUIDS
combine
to form
CELLS
TISSUES
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
combine
to form
MUSCLE TISSUE
ORGANS
NEURAL TISSUE
interact
in
ORGAN SYSTEMS
Epithelial Tissues
• Forms a barrier with
specific properties
• Covers every exposed
body surface
• Lines digestive,
respiratory, reproductive,
and urinary tracts
• Surrounds internal
cavities
• Lines inner surfaces of
blood vessels and heart
• Produces glandular
secretions
Connective Tissues
• Diverse in appearance
but all contain cells
surrounded by
extracellular matrix
• Matrix comprised of:
• Protein fibers
• Ground substance
(liquid)
• Amount of matrix
varies by the
particular connective
tissue type
• Fills internal spaces
• Provides structural
support
• Stores energy
Muscle Tissues
• Has the ability to
contract forcefully
• Major functions
• Skeletal
movement
• Soft tissue
support
• Maintenance of
blood flow
• Movement of
materials
internally
• Stabilization of
body
temperature
Skeletal muscle tissue is usually attached to the skeleton,
directly or indirectly, and its contractions move or
stabilize the position of bones or internal organs.
Cardiac muscle tissue is found only in the heart, where
its coordinated contractions propel blood through
the blood vessels.
Smooth muscle tissue can be found in the walls of blood
vessels, within glands, and along the respiratory ,
circulatory, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
• Neural tissue
• Specialized to carry
information or
instructions within the
body
• Two basic types of
cells
1.
Neurons (nerve cells)
2. Neuroglia (supporting cells)
• Two locations within
the body
1.
Central nervous system
(brain and spinal cord)
2.
Peripheral nervous system
(connecting CNS with other
tissues and organs)
Homeostasis
• Learning Outcome
• Explain the concept of
homeostasis and discuss
the roles of negative feedback
and positive feedback in
maintaining homeostasis.
•
Homeostasis
•
•
Is a condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment produced by the
interplay of all the body’s regulatory processes.
Homeostatic regulation
•
Physiological adjustment to preserve homeostasis in variable environments
•
Homeostatic control is not precise
• Maintains a normal range around the set point
•
SYSTEM & ENDOCRINE SYST
NERVOUS SYSTEM & ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
-
Homeostasis
• Mechanisms of Regulation
• Autoregulation (intrinsic)
• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or
organ to some environmental change
• Extrinsic regulation
• Responses controlled by nervous and
endocrine systems
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Variables produce a change in the body
• The three interdependent components of control
mechanisms:
• Receptor
• Monitors the environments and responds to
changes (stimuli)
• Control center
• Determines the set point at which the variable
is maintained
− Set point (desired value) – in the control
center
• Effector
• Provides the means to respond to stimuli
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Input:
Information
sent along
afferent
pathway to
3
Control
center
Receptor (sensor)
2
4
Output:
Information sent
along efferent
pathway to
Effector
Change
detected
by receptor
5
Stimulus:
Produces
change
in variable
Variable (in homeostasis)
Response of
effector feeds
back to
influence
magnitude of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostasis
Figure 1.4
Homeostasis
The brain knows that there are a set point of operations
within our body and it fluctuates around a particular
value.
• Maintained by negative feedback.
• Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation
• Set point may vary with changing environments or
activity levels
− When a particular action changes the normal
function and reverses the change that the action
created.
(i.e. it returns it to normal)
*Blood pressure regulation
*Sweating
*It is similar to the functioning of a thermostat in a
heating/cooling system
Homeostatic Control of Body Temperature
Homeostasis of Blood Pressure
• Pressure receptors in walls of
certain arteries detect an
increase in BP
• Blood Pressure = force of
blood on walls of vessels
• RECEPTOR
• Baroreceptors send nerve
impulses to the brain
• CONTROL CENTER
• Brain receives input and then
signals heart and blood
vessels (Control Center)
• EFFECTOR
• Heart
• Heart rate slows and
arterioles dilate
• Decreasee in diameter
• BP returns to normal
Homeostasis
• Positive feedback
− When a particular action causes an increase in
the normal functioning of the body.
− It accelerates a process to completion
enhancing the change from its’ original position.
– Child Birth
– Sexual stimulation
– Blood Clotting
Positive feedback mechanism can be harmful,
as when a fever causes metabolic changes
that push the fever still higher.
Positive Feedback during Childbirth
• RECEPTOR
• Stretch receptors in walls of
the uterus send signals to the
brain
• CONTROL CENTER (Brain)
• Releases a hormone
(oxytocin) into bloodstream
• EFFECTOR
• Uterine smooth muscle
contracts more forcefully
• More stretch  more
hormone  more
contraction  etc.
• The cycle ends with birth
of the baby & decrease in
stretch
Positive feedback loops are
typically found when a
potentially dangerous or stressful
process must be completed
quickly before homeostasis can
be restored.
The immediate danger from a
severe cut is loss of blood, which
can lower blood pressure and
reduce cardiac output.
Anatomical Terms
• Learning Outcomes
•
Use correct anatomical terms to
describe superficial and
regional anatomy.
•
Use correct directional terms and
sectional planes to describe relative
positions and relationships among
body parts.
•
Identify the major body cavities and
the subdivisions of each.
Anatomical Terms
• Landmarks around the body create a
map for orientation
• Based on Latin or Greek words used
by ancient anatomists
• Many terms also were initially named
after the discoverer or the most
famous victim (diseases)
• Most eponyms have been replaced by
more precise terms
Figure 1 Section 4
Figure 1 Section 4
Figure 1 Section 4
Figure 1 Section 4
Figure 1 Section 4
Figure 1 Section 4
•
•
Superficial and Regional Anatomy
Two major divisions of Surface
Anatomy
• Axial− Pertaining to the head,
neck and trunk
• Appendicular
− Pertaining to the limbs
Anatomical position
• Standing up
• Hands at the sides
• Palms facing forward
• Feet together
• Laying down in anatomical
position
• Supine (face up)
• Prone (face down)
Venipuncture
• Venipuncture is normally performed at
anticubital fossa (anicubitis)
• Median cubital vein
Figure 1.8
1
Heel
Calcaneus
Directional and Sectional terms
• Describe specific points of reference
• Many different terms, often
interchangeable
• All directions utilize anatomical
position as standard point of
reference
Major Directional Terms
• Directional terms are used to precisely
locate one part of the body relative to
another and to reduce length of
explanations.
Superior or Inferior
• Superior (Cephalad)
• Towards the head
• The eyes are
superior to the
mouth.
• Inferior (Caudal)
• Away from the
head
• The stomach is
inferior to the
heart.
Dorsal or Ventral
• Dorsal or Posterior
• At the back of the
body
• The brain is posterior
to the forehead.
• Ventral or Anterior
• At the front of the
body
• The sternum is
anterior to the heart.
Medial or Lateral
Medial
• Nearer to the midline of the body
• The heart lies medial to the lungs.
Lateral
• Farther from the midline of the body
• The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.
Proximal or Distal
• Proximal
• Nearer to the attachment of the
limb to the trunk
• The knee is proximal to the
ankle.
• Distal
• Farther from the attachment of
the limb to the trunk
• The wrist is distal to the elbow.
Superficial or Deep
• Superficial
• Close to the
body surface
• The Pleural
cavity is
superficial to
the lungs
• Deep
• Farther away
from the body
surface
• The heart is
deep to the
pericardium
Planes and Sections
• Planes are imaginary flat surfaces
that are used to divide the body or
organs into definite areas
• Sections
• Flat surfaces resulting from cuts
through body structures, named
according to the plane on which
the cut is made (transverse,
frontal, and midsagittal sections)
• Principal planes include:
• Sagittal (midsagittal and
parasagittal)
• Transverse (cross-sectional or
horizontal)
• Frontal –(Coronal) divides front
and back
• Oblique – combination of planes
Sagittal Plane
• Sagittal plane
• Divides the body
or an organ into
left and right
sides
• Midsagittal plane
• Produces equal
halves
• Parasagittal plane
• Produces unequal
halves
Planes and Sections
• Frontal or coronal plane
• Divides the body or an
organ into front (anterior)
and back (posterior)
portions
• Transverse (cross-sectional)
or horizontal plane
• Divides the body or an
organ into upper (superior)
or lower (inferior) portions
• Oblique plane
• Some combination of 2
other planes
Planes and Sections of the Brain
• Horizontal Plane
• Frontal Plane
• Midsagittal
Plane
Body cavities
• Two essential functions
1. Protect delicate organs from shocks and
impacts
2. Permit significant changes in size and shape of
internal organs
• Interior of the body is subdivided into regions
established by the body wall
• Dorsal Body Cavity
• Contains the CNS
• Ventral body cavity or coelom
• Largest body cavity containing organs of:
• Respiratory system
• Cardiovascular system
• Digestive system
• Urinary system
• Reproductive system
Dorsal Body Cavity
• Near dorsal surface of
body
• 2 subdivisions
• Cranial cavity
• Holds the brain
• Formed by skull
• Vertebral cavity
• Contains the
spinal cord
• Formed by
vertebral
column
• Meninges
• Line dorsal body
cavity
• Protect the brain
and spinal cord
Ventral Body Cavities
• The Thoracic Cavity
• The Pleural Cavities
• Enclose the lungs.
• The Pericardial Cavity
• Encloses the heart
• The Mediastium
• Contains connective
tissue and
pericardial cavity
containing the heart
Ventral Body Cavities
• The Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Abdominal Cavity
• Include the stomach,
spleen, pancreas, liver,
gallbladder, small
intestine, and most of the
large intestine
• Pelvic Cavity
• Include the urinary
bladder, portions of the
large intestine and
internal female and male
reproductive structures.
Superficial and Regional Anatomy
•
Abdominopelvic quadrants
• Imaginary perpendicular
lines that intersect at
navel
• Used by clinicians to
determine possible cause
of patient pains, aches, or
injuries
•
Abdominopelvic regions
• Nine regions
• Preferred by anatomists
• Describe the precise
location and orientation of
internal organs
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
• Right & Left Hypochondriac Regions
− Overlying the ribs :
– Right ( Part of Liver)
– Left (Part of Stomach & spleen)
• Epigastric Region
− Overlies the majority of the
stomach and the liver
• Right & Left Lumbar Regions
− Between the ribs and the hips,
large intestines
• Umbilical
− Small intestines
− Transverse Colon
• Right & Left Inguinal Regions (iliac)
− Overlying the hips
• Hypogastric (pubic)
− Encompasses the pubic area
− Appendix: Bladder : Genitals :
Rectum