Transcript Human body systems

By: Keri Maeschen
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Table of Contents
Digestive……………………………3-12
 Circulatory…………………...........13-26
 Respiratory…………………………27-35
 Immune……………………….........36-46
 Excretory…………………………...47-54
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The Digestive System
Function
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The function of this system is to
transform food into a slightly different
form to be allowed into the next
compartment. Food starts as complex
particles and is changed into basic
elements that are absorbed by the
body, while the waste is expelled
through the anus.
Organs
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Salivary Glands: produces saliva which is a lubricant for chewing and swallowing food
(accessory)
Mouth: place where food enters mouth and chewing takes place (alimentary)
Pharynx: aids in moving food from the mouth to the esophagus and is where swallowing takes
place (alimentary)
Esophagus: Delivers food from the pharynx to the stomach by peristalsis and the lower
esophageal sphincter keeps food from going backwards (alimentary)
Stomach: holds, mixes, and grinds food; secretes acids and enzymes to breakdown food
(alimentary)
Small Intestine: Uses enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver; peristalsis moves food
from duodenum (breaks it down), then jejunum, and ileum (both absorb nutrients) (alimentary)
Liver: Makes and secretes bile, and cleanses and purifies blood (accessory)
Pancreas: secretes enzymes into the small intestine where enzymes are made to break down
fat, protein, and carbohydrates from food (accessory)
Gall Bladder: during meals, it contracts and sends stored bile to the small intestine (accessory)
Large Intestine: (colon) waste product is passed through by peristalsis and is stored until it
needs to be emptied. It includes the cecum which starts near the appendix, then the ascending
colon which is above the cecum, next is transverse colon which is across the top, then the
descending which is on the opposite side going up and down, and the sigmoid colon which is the
end. (alimentary)
Appendix: unknown function; may be for storing good bacteria (accessory)
Rectum: receives waste from colon and signals that it is ready to be evacuated (alimentary)
Anus: prevents waste from coming out when it isn’t supposed to (alimentary)
Sphincters: circular muscle that constricts or relaxes when food is passed through (accessory)
Digestion of Large Molecules

Large particles are digested first by placing them in the mouth. The
large particles are chewed using the teeth and the mouth, along with
saliva to lubricate it and break it down with the enzyme amylase.
Next, the food is in a smaller form and is swallowed by passing
through the pharynx and the esophagus to the stomach. In the
stomach, it is stored, ground up, and hydrochloric acid mixes with the
food to create chyme. After that, chyme enters the duodenum of the
small intestine where enzymes from the gall bladder, pancreas, and
liver are secreted that further break down the food into simpler
elements. Villi in the small intestine allow for absorption of the
elements. Next, the liquefied chyme enters the large intestine, where
it becomes waste and as it passes through, water is absorbed and it
is turned into a solid. Waste is collected in the rectum where it is
stored until there is a signal saying that it needs to be emptied. It is
then eliminated through the anus. This process is essential because
humans eat large molecules and they must be made small enough
for our bodies to absorb.
Role of Enzymes

Enzymes are protein molecules that make life
processes happen by acting as change agents in the
chemical reactions that take place in the body. They
build up or break down substances needed. Amylase is
found in saliva and it breaks down carbohydrates.
Pepsin is found in the stomach and is a protease
enzyme that breaks down food. Small intestine
enzymes include lactase (which breaks down milk),
DPP IV (which breaks down proteins), and
disaccharides (which break down sugars and starches).
Basically, the role of enzymes is to break down the
foods we eat so they are able to be absorbed into the
blood stream.
Physical vs. Chemical Digestion
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Physical digestion is when
digestion takes place without
the aid of chemicals.
Chewing and mixing are
forms of physical digestion.
Chemical digestion is when
digestion takes place with
enzymes catalyzed.
Polysaccharides to
monosaccharides, proteins
to amino acids, and fats to
glycerol + amino fatty acids.
Both are used to break down
foods
Carbohydrate, Protein, & Lipid
Digestion
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Carbohydrates (starch and
sugar) are digested by
amylase and are then
turned into glucose. This
takes place in the mouth.
Proteins are digested by
proteases. These include
pepsin (in the stomach),
and trypsin (in the small
intestine).
Lipids (fats) are not water
soluble, so they are
covered in bile. Lipase is
the enzyme that digests fat
and is located in the
digestive tract.
Draw
and
Label
Disorders
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Lactose Intolerance: This happens when
the body lacks the enzyme lactase, which is
needed to digest lactose. Both children and adults
are affected by this disorder. It can be caused by
diseases or injuries to the small intestine and
symptoms include bloating, cramps, gas, diarrhea,
and nausea and as larger amounts of lactose are
taken in, symptoms get worse. Between 30 and 50
million Americans have this and can be treated by
eating less dairy products, or even eliminating them
from a diet.

Stomach Ulcers:
Ulcers are open lesions or
sores and can be found in the skin or mucous
membranes of the body. A stomach ulcer can also
be known as a gastric ulcer. Lifestyle, stress, and
diet may aid in formation of the ulcers, but aren’t
the main cause. Hydrochloric acid and pepsin are
the main causes and contribute to ulcer formation.
Symptoms include a feeling of gnawing or burning
in the stomach. About 6,000 Americans die from
ulcers or ulcer-related problems. This can be
treated by lowering acid amounts in the stomach.
Sources
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Campbell & Reece AP Biology Book
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Digestion.pdf
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h.jpg
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http://www.scientificamerican.com/media/inline/8F0B3BA6-A03E-CF2DA538AB82900B1318_1.jpg
The Circulatory System
Function

The circulatory system transports
materials (including gas, nutrients,
wastes, and hormones), contains cells
that fight infection, stabilize ionic
concentration and pH of fluids the body,
and transports heat to maintain
temperature.
Blood Vessels
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Arteries:
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Veins:
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They have a thick wall for high blood pressure.
There is a thick outer layer of collagen and elastic fibers.
They have thick layers of muscular, circular, and elastic fibers.
The blood goes from the heart to the small intestine.
Contains a narrow lumen to maintain high pressure.
They have thin layers with a few muscular, circular, and elastic fibers.
Muscles squeeze them because of their thin walls.
Contains thin outer layer of collagen and elastic fibers.
There is a wide lumen for slow blood flow.
Valves allow the blood to stay and not flow back.
Capillaries:
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They connect veins and arteries together.
Capillaries are thin and moist for diffusion.
They are narrow, but allow large quantities.
Pores allow diffusion of phagocytes and plasma.
Draw and Label
Blood Route
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Oxygenated blood from the lungs travels to the left side of the heart via
pulmonary veins, and empties in the left atrium. From there it goes to the
left atrioventular (bicuspid) valve and to the left ventricle. Seventy percent
of this flow comes in when the heart is relaxed, and the other thirty percent
comes in when the atrium contracts. There is a slight delay before the
ventricle contracts, and blood is forced to exit to the aorta. The
atrioventular valve closes to prevent backflow, and the aorta is closed off by
the aortic semilunar valve which snaps shut only when backflow tries to
take place. From the aorta, blood follows vessels throughout the body
(other than the lungs) which makes up the systemic circulation. It takes
blood to organs, and gives the oxygen to body tissues, while taking carbon
dioxide from them. After flowing through the capillaries, the blood goes
through the heart again, except through the right side. The superior vena
cava drains the top, while the inferior vena cava drains the bottom and both
dump it into the right atrium. Next, it goes through the right atrioventricular
(tricuspid) valve to the right ventricle. Then it passes through the
pulmonary semilunar valve into a single pulmonary artery, which branches
into arteries that carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs. Next, it returns
from the lungs to the left side of the heart replenished with oxygen and the
process repeats.
Blood Composition
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Blood is a liquid tissue that is made of plasma,
erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
Plasma is the straw-colored liquid that contains the
cells.
Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, make up ninety-nine
percent of the cells in blood. Two types of protein (A
and B) are found there and different combinations make
up the four blood types (A, B, AB, O)
Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are a large source of
defense for blood and “clean” it by picking up dead
cells. These cells can be used to diagnosis sicknesses.
Platelets are used when damage takes place on the
body. They trap the open wound and clot together to
form a scab to prevent dangerous loss of blood
Erythrocytes
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Erythrocytes are flat and
cylindrical, which allows
more oxygen and carbon
dioxide to be carried
throughout the body. They
are also very flexible and
move efficiently through
veins and vessels. They
are made of hemoglobin
which is composed of iron
and proteins.
Open vs. Closed Circulatory Systems
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Open: Circulatory fluid, or hemolymph, bathes
organs directly. The heart contracts pumping the
hemolymph through the circulatory vessels into
interconnected sinuses. In the sinuses, chemical
exchange occurs between the hemolymph and body
cells. The heart relaxes and draws hemolymph back
in through pores, and body movements help
circulate hemolymph by squeezing sinuses. An
example is lobsters and other arthropods and
mollusks.
Closed: Blood is confined to vessels and is distinct
form the interstitial fluid, unlike the open system.
One or more heart pumps blood into vessels that
branch off into smaller ones through the organs.
Materials are exchanged between the small vessels
and the interstitial fluid bathing the cells. Earthworms
are an example.
Animal Circulation: Fish

Fish have single circulation
where blood passes through
the heart once in a complete
circuit. Contraction of the
ventricle pumps blood to the
gills where there is a net
diffusion of oxygen into the
blood and carbon dioxide out of
the blood. When blood leaves
the gills, capillaries converge
into a vessel that carries
oxygen right blood to capillary
beds through the body, then
blood returns to the heart.
Animal Circulation: Amphibians
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Amphibians have a threechambered heart with two
circuits of blood flow
including the
pulmocutaneous and
systemic. They have a
heart with three chambers
(two atria and one ventricle).
When underwater,
circulation is adjusted and
for the most part blood flow
is shut off due to ineffective
lungs temporarily, but blood
flow continues to the skin
which is where gas
exchange takes place.
Animal Circulation: Reptiles
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Reptiles have three
chambered hearts and a
septum that partially
divides the ventricle into
right and left chambers. In
some animals (crocodiles,
caimans, and alligators),
the septum is complete,
but the pulmonary
systemic circuits are
connected where the
arteries exit the heart.
Animal Circulation: Mammals and
Birds
 Mammals and birds have
a four-chambered heart,
but birds have slightly
different major vessels
near the heart. The
ventricle is completely
divided so there are two
atria and two ventricles.
The left side receives and
pumps oxygen-rich blood,
while the left side receives
and pump oxygen-poor
blood.
Disorders
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Arteriosclerosis happens when there is an
accumulation of fatty acids in the arteries,
which thickens and stiffens the walls. This
makes blood unable to flow and may cause
blood clots, which may lead to heart attack
which is one of the symptoms. This can be
treated by eating less fatty foods, exercising,
and limiting alcohol intake. In America, for
sixty-five percent of men and forty-seven
percent of women, the first symptom is heart
attack or sudden cardiac death.
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Hypertension, also known as high blood
pressure and the pressure that is high is about
140/90. Symptoms include confusion, fatigue,
headache, nosebleed, and vision change.
Approximately 927 million people worldwide
suffer from this problem. This can be treated
by taking alpha or beta blockers, exercising,
eating healthy, using diuretics, or using
vasodilators.
Sources
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pressure.jpg
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The Respiratory System
Function
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The function of this
system is to take in
oxygen by inhalation
and take the oxygen to
the cells throughout the
body, while carbon
dioxide is taken out
through exhalation.
Besides respiration,
the respiratory system
also aids in coughing
and vocals.
Alveoli
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Alveoli are grouped together like grapes.
Oxygen inhaled diffuses through the walls
of the alveoli and goes into red blood cells.
They have thin walls for efficient gas
exchange.
The large surface area compared to
volume allows more intake of gas.
They are lined with fluid for gas to dissolve.
Alveoli are surrounded by many capillaries
Transports
Carbon dioxide is transported in blood
by a few processes. It diffuses along
the concentration gradient into the
plasma through the tissues. When it is
in the blood most of it enters the red
blood cells, some stays in the plasma.
 Oxygen is transported in blood in
plasma as dissolved oxygen and as a
chemical combination with hemoglobin.
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Trace Oxygen
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First, air is taken in by either the mouth or nose.
Next, oxygen passes through the larynx and
trachea.
Trachea splits into two bronchi and those divide
into bronchial tubes where oxygen passes through
after the larynx and trachea.
Bronchial tubes connect to the lungs and the
bronchial tubes become smaller tubes that connect
to alveoli, or tiny sacs where the gas is exchanged.
Capillaries bring in the carbon dioxide from the
heart and diffuse the oxygen into the hemoglobin
of the blood to take back to the heart.
Draw
and
Label
Breathe In, Breathe Out
Inhalation takes place when the diaphragm and
intercostals muscles contract. The diaphragm
moves down while the intercostals push the rib
cage up. This reduces the air pressure to below
atmospheric pressure, which allows air to rush in.
The volume of the thoracic cavity is also
increased.
 Exhalation takes place when the diaphragm and
intercostals relax and the diaphragm moves up
while the intercostals move down. The thoracic
cavity volume decreases and pressure is above
atmospheric pressure, causing air to release out
of the airways.
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Disorders
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Asthma: inflammatory disorder of
the airways where the muscles
become tight and air passages
swell. Symptoms include
wheezing, shortness of breath, and
coughing. Approximately 1 in 15
Americans suffer from asthma.
Treatment includes inhalant
corticosteroids and inhibitors.
Pneumonia: is an infection in the
lungs where bacteria or viruses
infect. Symptoms include
coughing, shaking, chills, and
shortness of breath. About 4.8
million people in America have had
pneumonia. This can be treated by
amoxicillin, Avelox, or other
antibiotics.
Sources
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%20fluid.jpg
The Immune System
Function
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The immune system is a
network of organs,
tissues, and chemicals
made up to protect the
body from things like
infection or sickness.
Parts that play a role in
this system include the
lymph nodes, spleen,
bone marrow, thymus
gland, and tonsils.
Organs
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Thymus produces T cells and puts
them in the blood stream. First,
immature T cells derive from bone
marrow and go through a maturation
process once they get to the thymus.
Beneficial ones are spared while
harmful ones are evoked.
Spleen is made up of B cells, T cells,
macrophages, dendrite cells, natural
killer cells, and red blood cells. Its
purpose is to filter the blood by
collecting antigens that pass through.
Lymph nodes filter the bodily fluid
called lymph and is made mostly of T
cells, B cells, dendrite cells, and
macrophages.
Pathogens, Antigens,
& Antibodies
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When humans have a virus once, they
probably won’t get it again because the
immune system is able to remember the
virus. On antibodies, they have a bonding
site to recognize antigens, which have
unique markers making them easy to
identify. The antibody tags the antigen
which triggers mechanisms to destroy it.
Some mechanisms include when it is bound
to the antibody it stops viruses from
attaching to a host cell or pathogens are
clumped together for phagocytes to destroy.
Innate vs. Acquired
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Innate immune system is the system that you are
born with and protects against antigens. They are
the first line of defense in the immune system
because they create a barrier to keep harmful
materials away. Examples include cough reflex, tear
enzymes, stomach acid, skin, and mucous.
Acquired immunity develops when there is exposure
to some antigens. Once your system has had a
sickness, it is easier for your body to fight it off,
which means a system is built to defend against that
specific antigen. An example is getting the chicken
pox, but you do not get them again because your
body recognizes it.
Both defend our bodies against sicknesses and
disorders that may affect us.
Active vs. Passive
Active immunity is when antibodies are
developed after an antigen stimulates it. In
response to infection, clones of memory cells
form. An example is immunization or
vaccination like using cowpox vaccination.
 Passive immunity involves antibodies
developed from another body. Examples
include young infants (have them from their
mother), and antiserum which is from another
person or animal.
 Both can be induced artificially. They are both
ways to protect the body.
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Humoral vs. Cell-mediated
Humoral uses antibodies
that are used to target cells
that are potentially
dangerous.
 Cell-mediated activates
macrophages, natural killer
cells, T-lymphocytes, and
cytokines.
 Both are fundamental
adaptive systems.
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B vs. T lymphocytes
B cells are involved in humeral immunity.
They produce large quantities of antibodies
which neutralize the bacteria or virus.
 T cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity.
Some produce cytokines that direct the other
immune response but others produce
cytotoxic T cells, which make toxic granules
that has enzymes that induce death of
infected cells.
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Antibiotics & Bacteria
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Bacteria must live on a host
so they are easier to kill than
viruses. Antibiotics can
block metabolic pathways of
bacteria, which inhibits cell
wall formation and protein
synthesis. This causes
death. In order for a virus to
be killed, the human cell
must be killed also.
Disorders
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HIV/AIDS: Human Immunodeficiency Virus is a virus
similar to the flu, but our immune systems cannot
get rid of it because they take over CD4 and T-cells
to make copies of itself and destroy them. Acquired
Immunodeficiency Syndrome is the final stage of
HIV where people have badly infected immune
systems. Many people do not have symptoms for a
long time, but eventually feel like they have “a very
bad flu”. 33.4 million people in the world are living
with AIDS. People are treated with antiretroviral
therapy which prevents HIV from growing, although
it cannot be completely cured.

Sarcoidosis: This is a disease where the lymph
nodes, lungs, liver, eyes, skin, or other tissues
become inflamed. Symptoms include abnormal
breathing, coughing, fatigue, rashes, seizures,
enlarged liver, dry mouth, and many more.
Approximately 1 in 5,000 people has Sarcoidosis.
This disease eventually heals over time, but severe
cases are treated by corticosteroids.
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The Excretory System
Function
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This system gets rid of wastes in the
body and regulates the amount of water
and ions present in fluids. Toxics are
removed to prevent buildup and death.
Draw
and
Label
Wastes
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Ammonia: After the amino group is
removed from amino acid,
ammonia is formed and is highly
soluble in water, but very toxic.
Animals that excrete ammonia
include bony fishes, aquatic
invertebrates, and amphibians
because it can be easily
eliminated in water.
Urea: Urea is produced in the liver
and requires more energy than
ammonia to be made. Animals
that excrete urea include terrestrial
amphibians and mammals,
because it is less toxic and can be
concentrated to conserve water.
Uric Acid: Uric Acid is relatively
insoluble and nontoxic, so it can
accumulate in eggs without
damaging the embryos and
synthesis of uric acid requires
more energy than urea synthesis.
Insects, reptiles, birds, and some
dogs secrete uric acid, and they
do this because it is not very toxic
and isn’t very soluble in water.
Draw
and
Label
Nephron
The nephron is
responsible for
regulating blood
volume, pressure,
and pH or acidity. It
is also able maintain
concentration of
water and soluble
substances
Excretory processes
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Filtration is driven by hydrostatic pressure, filtration is the
process where water and small solutes (salt, sugar, amino
acids, nitrogenous wastes, ect.) are allowed across the
membrane to form filtrate. Large molecules, cells, and
proteins are not able to cross the membrane.
Reabsorbtion converts filtrate into waste fluid by the specific
transport of materials. This process recovers useful
molecules and water from filtrate and returns them to the
body fluids and useful solutes are reabsorbed by active
transport, while nonessential ones are left in the filtrate.
Secretion takes place when nonessential solutes are added
to the filtrate and occurs by active transport. The pumping of
solutes can adjust the osmotic movement of water into or out
of the filtrate.
Excretion is the last process where the filtrate is released as
urine.
Disorders
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Kidney Stones are a solid mass made up
of tiny crystals and can be found in the
kidney or ureter. Symptoms include
bloody urine, pain in the groin or back,
fever, chills, and vomiting. Each year,
about half-a-million people visit the
emergency room from kidney stones.
Antibiotics, diuretics, or surgery (if the
stone cannot be passed) are a few
treatment options.

Cystitis is the inflammation of the bladder,
which may be caused by a bacterial
infection. Bloody urine, discomfort in the
pelvic area, fever, and a burning
sensation while urinating are all
symptoms of cystitis. About one in fortythree Americans have cystitis. Antibiotics,
nerve stimulation, or sometimes surgery
are ways to treat this disorder.
Sources
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http://newhorizonsnaturalhealthcare.com/linked/excretory%20system.jpg
Campbell & Reece AP Biology Book
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.edu/faculty/michael.gregory/files/bio%20102/bi
o%20102%20lectures/excretory%20system/excretor.htm
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-nephron.htm
http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/kidneyurinary/kidney2.htm
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001493/
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/cystitis/DS00285
http://www.fastkidneystonetreatment.com/images/kidney%20stone.jpg
http://drugster.info/img/ail/123_124_3.jpg