Orientation to the Human Body
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Transcript Orientation to the Human Body
Cardiovascular &
Hematological Systems
Chapter 6
Pathology
Circulatory System
circulatory system - the heart, blood vessels and blood
cardiovascular system - the heart and blood vessels
hematology – the study of blood
functions of circulatory system
◦ transport
O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, hormones
◦ protection
limit spread of infection, destroy microorganisms and
cancer cells, and initiates clotting
◦ regulation
fluid balance, stabilizes pH of ECF, and temperature
control
Transportation
Blood
Carries oxygen to tissues
Carries carbon dioxide from tissues
Transports nutrients and other
substances to cells
Transports waste products from cells
Carries hormones to organs
Regulation
Blood
Buffers keep pH of body fluids between
7.35 and 7.45
Substances maintain osmotic pressure to
regulate fluid in tissues (fluid balance)
Transports heat generated in muscles to
aid in regulation of body temperature
Protection
Blood
Carries cells and antibodies of immune
system
Carries factors to protect against blood
loss
Components and General Properties of
Blood
adults have 4-6 L of blood
a liquid connective tissue consisting of
cells and extracellular matrix
◦ plasma – matrix of blood
a clear, light yellow fluid
◦ formed elements - blood cells and cell
fragments
red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets
Components and General Properties of
Blood
seven kinds of formed elements
◦ erythrocytes - red blood cells (RBCs)
◦ Platelets - thrombocytes
cell fragments from special cell in bone marrow
◦ leukocytes - white blood cells (WBCs)
five leukocyte types divided into two categories:
granulocytes (with granules)
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils
agranulocytes (without granules)
lymphocytes
monocytes
Formed Elements of Blood
Monocyte
Platelets
Small
lymphocyte
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Small
lymphocyte
Erythrocyte
Young (band)
neutrophil
Neutrophil
Monocyte
Large
lymphocyte
Neutrophil
Basophil
Separating Plasma From Formed Elements of
Blood
Withdraw
blood
Centrifuge
hematocrit (packed cell vol.)centrifuge blood to separate
components
◦ erythrocytes are heaviest
and settle first
37% to 52% total volume
(hematocrit)
Plasma
(55% of whole blood)
◦ leukocytes and platelets
1% total volume; buffy coat
Buffy coat: leukocytes
and platelets
(<1% of whole blood)
Erythrocytes
(45% of whole blood)
Formed
elements
◦ plasma
the remainder of volume
47% - 63%
Plasma and Plasma Proteins
plasma – liquid portion of blood
3 major categories of plasma proteins
◦ albumins – smallest and most abundant
◦ globulins (antibodies)
provide immune system functions
alpha, beta and gamma globulins
◦ fibrinogen
precursor of fibrin threads that help form blood clots
Composition of Whole Blood
Percentages show the relative proportions of the
different components of plasma and formed
elements.
Blood Plasma
Plasma is 55% of blood
91% water
8% protein
•1% other materials
–Glucose
–Amino acids
–Lipids
◦ Albumin
–Electrolytes
◦ Clotting factors
–Vitamins
◦ Antibodies
◦ Complement
–Hormones
–Wastes
–Drugs
–Dissolved gases
Hemopoiesis
adult production of 400 billion platelets, 200 billion
RBCs and 10 billion WBCs every day
hemopoiesis – the production of blood, especially
its formed elements
hemopoietic tissues produce blood cells
◦ yolk sac produces stem cells for first blood cells
colonize fetal bone marrow, liver, spleen and thymus
◦ liver stops producing blood cells at birth
◦ spleen remains involved with lymphocyte production
◦ red bone marrow produces all seven formed
elements
The Formed Elements
Produced in red bone marrow
Hematopoietic (blood-forming) stem cells
can develop into any blood cell
Short-lived tissue cells
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells (RBCs) most numerous
Mature cells anuclear
Contain hemoglobin
◦ Binds to oxygen for transport
◦ Carries hydrogen ions for buffering
◦ Carries carbon dioxide for elimination
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Erythrocytes are an example of the
complementarity of structure and function
Structural characteristics contribute to its
gas transport function
◦ Biconcave shape has a huge surface area
relative to volume
◦ Erythrocytes are more than 97% hemoglobin
◦ ATP is generated anaerobically, so the
erythrocytes do not consume the oxygen they
transport
Erythrocyte Function
RBCs are dedicated to respiratory gas transport
Hb reversibly binds with oxygen and most oxygen in
the blood is bound to Hb
Hb is composed of the protein globin, made up of
two alpha and two beta chains, each bound to a
heme group
Each heme group bears an atom of iron, which can
bind to one oxygen molecule
Each Hb molecule can transport four molecules of
oxygen
Erythrocytes and Hemoglobin
RBC count and hemoglobin concentration indicate amount of O2 blood
can carry
◦ hematocrit (packed cell volume) – percentage of whole blood
volume composed of red blood cells
men 42- 52% cells; women 37- 48% cells
◦ hemoglobin concentration of whole blood higher in men
◦ RBC count higher in men
Why values are lower in women
◦ androgens stimulate RBC production
◦ women have periodic menstrual losses
◦ hematocrit is inversely proportional to percentage of body fat
Hemoglobin (Hb)
Oxyhemoglobin – Hb bound to oxygen
◦ Oxygen loading takes place in the lungs
Deoxyhemoglobin – Hb after oxygen
diffuses into tissues (reduced Hb)
Carbaminohemoglobin – Hb bound to
carbon dioxide
◦ Carbon dioxide loading takes place in the
tissues
Production of Erythrocytes
Hematopoiesis – blood cell formation
Hematopoiesis occurs in the red bone
marrow of the:
◦ Axial skeleton and girdles
◦ Epiphyses of the humerus and femur
Hemocytoblasts give rise to all formed
elements
Hormonal Control of Erythropoiesis
Erythropoietin (EPO) release by the kidneys
is triggered by:
◦ Hypoxia due to decreased RBCs
◦ Decreased oxygen availability
◦ Increased tissue demand for oxygen
Enhanced erythropoiesis increases the:
◦ RBC count in circulating blood
◦ Oxygen carrying ability of the blood
Erythropoietin Mechanism
Start
Homeostasis: Normal blood oxygen levels
Stimulus: Hypoxia due to
decreased RBC count,
decreased amount of
hemoglobin, or decreased
availability of O2
Increases
O2-carrying
ability of blood
Reduces O2 levels
in blood
Enhanced
erythropoiesis
increases
RBC count
Erythropoietin
stimulates red
bone marrow
Kidney (and liver to a smaller
extent) releases erythropoietin
Erythrocyte Homeostasis
negative feedback control
◦ drop in RBC count causes kidney hypoxia
◦ kidney production of EPO stimulates
bone marrow
◦ RBC count increases in 3 - 4 days
stimuli for increasing erythropoiesis
◦ low levels O2 (hypoxemia)
◦ high altitude
◦ increase in exercise
◦ loss of lung tissue in emphysema
Hypoxemia
(inadequate O2 transport)
Increased
O2 transport
Sensed by liver and kidneys
leaves
Increased
RBC count
Accelerated
erythropoiesis
Secretion of
erythropoietin
Stimulation of
red bone marrow
Erythrocyte Disorders
polycythemia - an excess of RBCs
◦ primary polycythemia (polycythemia vera)
cancer of erythropoietic cell line in red bone marrow
RBC count as high as 11 million/L; hematocrit 80%
◦ secondary polycythemia
from dehydration, emphysema, high altitude, or physical
conditioning
RBC count up to 8 million/L
dangers of polycythemia
◦ increased blood volume, pressure, viscosity
can lead to embolism, stroke or heart failure
Anemia
causes of anemia fall into three categories:
◦ inadequate erythropoiesis or hemoglobin synthesis
kidney failure and insufficient erythropoietin
iron-deficiency anemia
inadequate vitamin B12 from poor nutrition or lack of
intrinsic factor (pernicious anemia)
hypoplastic anemia – slowing of erythropoiesis
aplastic anemia - complete cessation of
erythropoiesis
◦ hemorrhagic anemias from bleeding
◦ hemolytic anemias from RBC destruction
Anemia
anemia has three potential consequences:
◦ tissue hypoxia and necrosis
patient is lethargic
shortness of breath upon exertion
life threatening necrosis of brain, heart, or kidney
◦ blood osmolarity is reduced producing tissue
edema
◦ blood viscosity is low
heart races and pressure drops
cardiac failure may ensue
Blood Types
blood types and transfusion compatibility
are a matter of interactions between
plasma proteins and erythrocytes
blood types are based on interactions
between antigens and antibodies
Blood Antigens and Antibodies
antigens
◦ complex molecules on surface of cell membrane
that are unique to the individual
used to distinguish self from foreign
foreign antigens generate an immune response
agglutinogens – antigens on the surface of the
RBC that is the basis for blood typing
Blood Antigens and Antibodies
antibodies
◦ proteins (gamma globulins) secreted by plasma
cells
part of immune response to foreign matter
bind to antigens and mark them for destruction
forms antigen-antibody complexes
agglutinins – antibodies in the plasma that bring
about transfusion mismatch
ABO Group
your ABO blood type is determined by
presence or absence of antigens
(agglutinogens) on RBCs
◦ blood type A person has A antigens
◦ blood type B person has B antigens
◦ blood type AB has both A and B antigens
◦ blood type O person has neither antigen
most common - type O
rarest - type AB
Universal Donors and Recipients
Safest transfusion is same blood type
universal donor
◦ Type O – most common blood type
◦ lacks RBC antigens
◦ donor’s plasma may have both antibodies against
recipient’s RBCs (anti-A and anti-B)
may give packed cells (minimal plasma)
universal recipient
◦ Type AB – rarest blood type
◦ lacks plasma antibodies; no anti- A or B
Blood Typing
Labels on the bottles denote the
kind of antiserum (antibodies)
added to the blood samples.
Anti-A serum agglutinates (causes
to clump) red cells in type A
blood, but anti-B serum does not.
Type A
Type B
Type AB
Type O
Anti-B serum agglutinates red cells
in type B blood, but anti-A serum
does not. Both sera agglutinate
type AB blood cells, and neither
serum agglutinates type O blood
Leukocytes
White blood cells (WBCs) colorless, round
◦ Granulocytes
Neutrophils (polymorphs)
Eosinophils
Basophils
◦ Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Prominent nuclei
Clear body of foreign material, cellular debris,
pathogens
Hemostasis
Prevents blood loss when blood vessel
ruptures
Contraction of smooth muscles in blood
vessel wall (vasoconstriction)
Formation of platelet plug
Formation of blood clot
Uses of Blood and Blood
Components
Blood stored in blood banks up to 35
days
◦ Anti-clotting solution added
◦ Expiration date added
Blood donated before elective surgery
(autologous blood)
Whole Blood Transfusions
Used for loss of large volume of blood
Massive hemorrhage from serious injuries
During internal bleeding
During or after an operation
Blood replacement in treatment of HDN
Use of Plasma
Replace blood volume
Treat circulatory failure (shock)
Treat plasma protein deficiency
Replace clotting factors
Provide needed antibodies
Blood Disorders
Blood abnormalities
Anemia (low level of hemoglobin or red
cells)
Leukemia (increase in white cells)
Clotting disorders (abnormal tendency to
bleed)
Anemia
Anemia causes
Excessive loss or destruction of red cells
◦ Hemorrhagic anemia
◦ Hemolytic anemia
◦ Sickle cell anemia
Impaired production of red cells or
hemoglobin
◦ Deficiency anemia
◦ Thalassemia
◦ Bone marrow suppression
Leukemia
Leukemia is characterized by enormous
increase in white cells
Myelogenous leukemia from bone
marrow
Lymphocytic leukemia from lymphoid
tissue
Bone marrow transplants sometimes
successful in restoring blood-producing
stem cells lost after leukemia treatment
Clotting Disorders
Abnormal bleeding through disruption of
coagulation process
Hemophilia
Von Willebrand disease
Thrombocytopenia
Disseminated intravascular coagulation
(DIC)
The Blood Slide (Smear)
Complete blood count (CBC) performed
on drop stained blood slide
Red cells examined
Platelets examined
Parasites may be found
Differential white count performed