Transcript adaptive immune system - Zanichelli online per la scuola

David Sadava, David M. Hillis,
H. Craig Heller, May R. Berenbaum
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biologia.blu
Anatomia e fisiologia dei viventi S
Immunology: Animal
Defense Systems
What Are the Major Defense Systems of Animals?
Animals have various means of defense against
pathogens—organisms or viruses that cause disease.
Defense systems are based on the recognition of self
and non self molecules.
Two types of defense mechanisms:
Innate defenses (non-specific) act rapidly; include
barriers such as skin, phagocytic cells, and toxins.
Adaptive defenses are aimed at specific pathogens.
Slow to develop and long-lasting; e.g., antibodies for a
specific virus. Evolved in vertebrates.
The Human Lymphatic System
Components of mammalian
defense systems are
dispersed throughout the
body.
Lymphoid tissues include
thymus, bone marrow,
spleen, and lymph nodes.
What Are the Major Defense Systems of Animals?
Lymph: fluid derived from blood and other tissues.
From tissues, lymph moves into lymph system
vessels.
Lymph vessels join and eventually form the thoracic
duct, which joins the circulatory system at a major
vein near the heart.
Lymph nodes are small round structures at many
sites along lymph vessels—contain lymphocytes, a
type of white blood cell.
What Are the Characteristics of the Innate Defenses?
Innate defenses are general mechanisms to stop
pathogens from invading or quickly eliminate those
that do.
They are genetically programmed: “ready to go.”
In mammals, they
include physical
barriers as well as
cellular and
chemical defenses.
What Are the Characteristics of the Innate Defenses?
If a pathogen lands inside nose or an internal organ:
mucus in the nose, respiratory, digestive, and
urogenital systems traps microorganisms.
Cilia continuously move the mucus and its trapped
debris away.
Lysozyme, made by mucous membranes, attacks
bacterial cell walls and causes them to burst (lyse).
What Are the Characteristics of the Innate Defenses?
Defensins, made by mucous membranes, are
peptides with hydrophobic domains; toxic to many
pathogens.
Defensins insert themselves into the plasma
membrane of the
pathogen and
make it
permeable.
What Are the Characteristics of the Innate Defenses?
Complement and interferon proteins are produced in
response to pathogens.
Vertebrate blood has over 20 different proteins that
make up the antimicrobial complement system.
Interferons are signaling molecules that increase
resistance of neighboring cells to a pathogen.
They bind to uninfected cells, stimulating a signaling
pathway that inhibits viral reproduction.
What Are the Characteristics of the Innate Defenses?
Phagocytes travel in lymph
and blood, and may move out
of vessels and into
tissues.They engulf foreign
cells, viruses, and fragments.
Natural killer cells can distinguish virus-infected
cells and some tumor cells from normal cells.
•Can initiate apoptosis in these cells
•Can interact with adaptive defense mechanisms and
lyse cells labeled by antibodies.
What Are the Characteristics of the Innate Defenses?
Inflammation is a response to injury or infection.
It isolates damaged areas to stop the spread, recruits
cells and molecules to the area to kill invaders, and
promotes healing.
The redness and heat of inflammation result from
dilation and leakiness of blood vessels in the affected
area.
What Are the Characteristics of the Innate Defenses?
Histamine and other signals attract phagocytes; they
engulf invaders and dead cells.
Phagocytes produce cytokines, which can signal the
brain to produce fever.
What Are the Characteristics of the Innate Defenses?
Increased body temperature accelerates
lymphocyte production and phagocytosis; also inhibits
growth of some pathogens.
After inflammation, pus may accumulate—leaked fluid
and dead cells; it is gradually consumed by
macrophages.
Sepsis: response to a bacterial infection may not
remain local and spreads throughout the
bloodstream.
How Does Adaptive Immunity Develop?
The adaptive immune system has four key traits:
•Specificity: T cell receptors and antibodies bind to
specific non-self molecules (antigens).
Specific sites on the antigens are called
antigenic determinants.
•Distinguishing self from non-self:
every cell in the body has many different antigens;
the immune system must be able to recognize them
all and not attack them.
How Does Adaptive Immunity Develop?
•Diversity:
the immune system must respond to a wide variety of
pathogens.
Humans can respond specifically to about 10 million
different antigens.
•Immunological memory:
after one response to a pathogen, the immune
system “remembers” the pathogen and can respond
more quickly and powerfully if that pathogen invades
again.
Vaccination introduces an antigen and the immune
system remembers it.
How Does Adaptive Immunity Develop?
Clonal selection
The lymphocytes
proliferate and generate
a clone of genetically
identical cells.
Effector cells (plasma
cells) attack the
antigen.
Memory cells are longlived cells that can
divide on short notice to
produce effector cells
and more memory cells.
How Does Adaptive Immunity Develop?
Adaptive immune system has two types of responses
that operate simultaneously and cooperatively.
1. Humoral immune response—relies on B cells
making antibodies;
Antibodies belong to a
protein class called
immunoglobulins.
What Is the Humoral Immune Response?
All are tetramers
with two light
chains and two
heavy chains, held
together by disulfide
bonds.
Each polypeptide
chain has a
constant region
and a variable
region.
What Is the Humoral Immune Response?
Ability to bind two antigen molecules at once, along
with multiple epitopes on many antigens results in
large complexes that are easy targets for ingestion and
breakdown by phagocytes.
Antibody Classes
Constant region determines the class of antibody—
the function and destination.
What Is the Cellular Immune Response?
2. Cellular immune response involves two types of
effector T cells:
• T-helper cells (TH)
• Cytotoxic T cells (TC)
T cell specific membrane
receptors bind only to antigens
displayed by an MHC (Major
histocompatibility complex) on
the surface of a target cell.
• Class I MHC
• Class II MHC
What Is the Cellular Immune Response?
Clonal deletion helps distinguish self from non-self.
In the thymus, during early differentiation, any
immature B or T cell that shows potential to mount
an immune response against self antigens
undergoes programmed cell death (apoptosis).
The Adaptive Immune System
How Does Adaptive Immunity Develop?
Primary immune response: when antigen is first
encountered, “naïve” lymphocytes proliferate to
produce clones of effector and memory cells.
Secondary immune response: when antigen is
encountered again, memory cells proliferate and
launch an army of plasma cells and effector T cells.
Because of immunological memory, exposure to
many diseases provides natural immunity.
How Does Adaptive Immunity Develop?
Vaccination provides artificial immunity by
introducing an antigen that does not cause disease.
• Inactivation
• Attenuation
• Recombinant DNA technology
What Happens When the Immune System Malfunctions?
Allergic reactions occur when the immune system
overreacts or is hypersensitive to an antigen.
What Happens When the Immune System Malfunctions?
Autoimmunity: errors in T cell selection result in T
cells that bind to self antigen-MHC complexes.
Some autoimmune diseases:
• Systemic lupus erythematosis (SLE)
• Rheumatoid arthritis
• Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
• Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type I)
What Happens When the Immune System Malfunctions?
TH cells are the target of human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), the retrovirus that results in (AIDS)
acquired immune deficiency syndrome.
HIV can be transmitted by bodily fluids containing the
virus (blood, semen, vaginal fluid, or breast milk).
Adapted from
Life: The Science of Biology, Tenth Edition, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA, 2014
Inc. All rights reserved