Transcript Learning

LEARNING
Long lasting change
in behavior, due to
experience
Classical Conditioning
crash course
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• Ivan Pavlov
– studied digestion of dogs
– noticed dogs would
salivate before they were
given food (triggered by
sounds, lights etc…)
– concluded: dogs must have
LEARNED to salivate in
response to stimuli other
than the food
Click above to see a
reenactment of Pavlov’s
experiments.
Classical Conditioning
• This is passive learning.
• First, we need an
unconditional
relationship.
 Unconditioned Stimulus
(UCS) - something that
elicits a natural, reflexive
response
 Unconditioned Response
(UCR) - response to the
UCS
Classical Conditioning
• Next, we choose a neutral stimulus (something that by
itself elicits no response).
• We present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch
of times.
Classical Conditioning
• After a while, the
body begins to link
together the neutral
stimulus with the
UCS.
• Acquisition
Classical Conditioning
• We know learning takes
places when the
previously neutral
stimulus provokes the
response.
• At this point, the
neutral stimulus is now
a conditioned stimulus
(CS) and the
unconditioned response
becomes the
conditioned response
(CR).
Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition is not
permanent.
• The moment the CS is
no longer associated
with the UCS, we
have EXTINCTION.
Spontaneous Recovery
• Sometimes, after
extinction, the CR
will randomly appear
when CS is
presented.
Classical Conditioning Examples
See if you can identify the UCS, UCR, CS and CR.
Click above to see classical
conditioning as portrayed in
The Office.
Click above to see classical
conditioning in a high school
student’s own “experiment”.
TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE:
UCS ? UCR? CS? CR?
You typically take showers in the locker
room after practice. During one such
shower, you hear someone flushing a
nearby toilet. Suddenly, extremely hot
water rushes out of the shower head,
causing serious discomfort. As you
continue the shower, you hear another
toilet flush and immediately jump out form
under the shower head.
UCS? UCR? CS? CR?
Your mother prepared a tuna sandwich for
your lunch. Unfortunately, the mayonnaise
she used had been left out too long and
was spoiled. Not long after eating, you
felt extremely nauseated and had to rush
to the bathroom. Thereafter, the mere
mention of a tuna sandwich sent you
scurrying to the bathroom with a hurting
stomach.
UCS? UCR? CS? CR?
You were happy when you heard your
family's plan to go to a water show. Then
you heard the weather report, which
predicted temperatures exceeding 100
degrees. As you watched the water skiers
perform routines to blaring organ music,
you got more and more sweaty and
uncomfortable. Eventually, you fainted
from the heat. After the family outing
you could never again hear organ music
without feeling a little dizzy.
Classical Conditioning and Humans
• John Watson brought classical conditioning to
psychology with his “Baby Albert” experiment.
Click the image
to the left to see
footage from the
“Baby Albert”
experiment.
Generalization and Discrimination
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• Something is so similar to
the CS that there is the
CR.
• Something is so different
from the CS there is no
CR.
Garcia and Koelling Study
• Studied rats / conditioning
• Conclusion #1 - Even if sickened
several hours later, rats developed
taste aversions.
• Conclusion #2 – Rats developed
aversions to taste, but not sight,
sound, etc.
CS
UCS
CR
Loud Noise
Radiation (nausea)
NONE
Sweet Water
Shock
NONE
Sweet Water
Radiation (nausea)
Avoid Water
Taste Aversions
• In cases of food
paired with nausea &
sickness,
conditioning is
incredibly strong.
 even when food and
sickness are hours
apart
Contingency Model
• Robert Rescorla
– revised Pavlov’s classical conditioning
model
– starts with the realization that something
must account for the ability to
discriminate between stimuli
– emphasized the role of cognitive
processes during acquisition
– said that classical conditioning “is not a
stupid process by which the organism
willy-nilly forms associations between any
two stimuli that happen to occur.”
Operant Conditioning
start @ 5:47
The Learner is NOT passive.
Learning based on consequence!!!
khan academy
Big Bang
The Law of Effect
Click picture to see a better
explanation of the Law of
Effect.
• Edward Thorndike
• Locked cats in crates
• Behavior changes because of
its consequences
• Rewards strengthen
behavior
• If consequences are
unpleasant, the stimulusreward connection will
weaken.
• Called the whole process
instrumental learning
B.F. Skinner
• Operant Conditioning
• Emphasized nurture
(environment) and the
minimal role of freewill / mental
processes.
• Used a “Skinner Box”
(Operant Conditioning
Chamber) to prove his
concepts.
Skinner Box
Reinforcers
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• A reinforcer is anything
that strengthens
(increases) a behavior
Positive Reinforcement:
• The addition of
something pleasant
Negative Reinforcement:
• The removal of
something unpleasant
Positively or Negatively Reinforced?
Putting your
seatbelt on.
Faking sick
and avoiding
AP Psych
class.
Studying for a test.
Taking an aspirin.
Breaking out
of jail.
Receiving a
kiss for doing
the dishes.
+
Positive
Reinforcement
Punishment
Gives something to
increase the
likelihood that the
behavior will be
repeated (the subject
wants this
thing/condition)
Gives something to
decrease the
likelihood that the
behavior will be
repeated (the subject
does not want this
thing/condition)
Negative
Takes something to
increase the likelihood
that the behavior will
be repeated (the
subject does not want
this thing/condition)
Takes something to
decrease the
likelihood that the
behavior will be
repeated (the subject
would like to have this
thing/condition)
Punishment
• A stimulus meant to
decrease a behavior
Positive Punishment
• addition of something
unpleasant.
Negative Punishment
(Omission Training)
• removal of something
pleasant
• Punishment works best
when it immediately
follows behavior and is
harsh!
How do we actually use Operant
Conditioning?
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• Sometimes, we use a
process called
shaping.
• Shaping is reinforcing
small steps on the way
to a desired behavior.
These small steps are
called
approximations.
Chaining Behaviors
• Subjects are taught
to link multiple
responses together in
order to get a reward.
Click picture to see a rat chaining behaviors
Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors.
.
Same Terminology as Classical
Conditioning
If I wanted to reinforce
a toddler’s dancing by
giving him lollipops when
he dances, identify the
following…
• Acquisition
• Extinction
• Spontaneous
Recovery
• Generalization
• Discrimination
Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer
• things that are
intrinsically rewarding
Secondary Reinforcer
• things we have learned to
value (because they are
associated with primary
enforcers)
• Money is a special
secondary reinforcer
called a generalized
reinforcer (because it
can be traded for just
about anything)
Token Economy
• Every time a desired
behavior is performed,
a “token” is given.
• They can trade
“tokens” in for a
variety of prizes
(reinforcers)
• Used in homes, prisons,
mental institutions and
schools.
Reinforcement Schedules
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How often do you give
the reinforcer?
• Every time the
desired behavior is
exhibited or just
sometimes when it
is?
Continuous v. Partial
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous
• Reinforce the behavior
EVERY TIME the
behavior is exhibited.
• Usually done when the
subject is first learning
to make the association.
• Acquisition comes really
fast, but so does
extinction.
Partial
• Reinforce the behavior
only SOME of the times
it is exhibited.
• Acquisition comes more
slowly.
• But is more resistant to
extinction.
• FOUR types of Partial
Reinforcement
schedules.
Ratio Schedules (Responses)
Fixed Ratio
• Provides a
reinforcement after a
SET number of
responses.
Variable Ratio
• Provides a
reinforcement after a
RANDOM number of
responses.
• Very hard to get
acquisition but also very
resistant to extinction.
Fixed Ratio- She gets a manicure for every 5
pounds she loses.
Interval Schedules (Time)
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
• Requires a SET amount
of time to elapse before
giving the
reinforcement.
• Requires a RANDOM
amount of time to elapse
before giving the
reinforcement.
• Very hard to get
acquisition but also very
resistant to extinction.
Fixed Interval: She gets a
manicure for every 7 days she
stays on her diet.
Which type of reinforcement
schedule?
•
•
•
•
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Negative vs.
Positive
Reinforcement
Primary vs.
Conditioned
Ratio
Schedules
Concepts /
Components
Interval
Negative
Punishment
Operant
Conditioning
Positive
Response /
Stimulus
Associations
Thorndike
Law of Effect /
Cat Experiments
Skinner
Skinner Box / Rat
& Bird
Experiments
People
Latent Learning
• Edward Tolman –
demonstrated the concept
using rats/mazes &
reinforcers.
• Learning is not always
immediately observable in
behavior (“latent” means
hidden).
• Learning doesn’t completely
depend on consequences.
• cognitive maps – a mental
representation of one’s
environment
Insight Learning
• Wolfgang Kohler Chimpanzees / Boxes &
Bananas experiment
• Learning takes place
through the “ah ha”
experience (gaining
“insight”).
• Weakens the behaviorist
argument (emphasis on
external, behavior /
consequence relationship)
Images from Kohler’s chimpanzee
experiments
Observational Learning
crash coursecourse
• Albert Bandura - BoBo
Doll experiment
• Learning through
modeling behavior from
others.
• Observational learning +
Operant Conditioning
Principles = Social
Learning Theory
• Implications of Bandura’s
findings?
Click pic to see footage from
the Bobo Doll experiment.
Contingency Model
• Robert Rescorla
– revised Pavlov’s classical conditioning
model
– starts with the realization that something
must account for the ability to
discriminate between stimuli
– emphasized the role of cognitive
processes during acquisition
– said that classical conditioning “is not a
stupid process by which the organism
willy-nilly forms associations between any
two stimuli that happen to occur.”
Associative
Learning
Learning
Classical
Conditioning
S+S
Operant
Conditioning
R+S
Latent
Learning
Other
Insight
Learning
Observational
Learning
Review
https://www.khanacademy.org/testprep/mcat/behavior/learningslug/e/learning---passage-1
https://www.khanacademy.org/testprep/mcat/behavior/learningslug/e/learning---passage-2
Putting it all together:based on
psychologist John Rosemond’s suggestion, analyze his proposed
solution using 5 terms/ideas from this chapter in your analysis
• Teenage son in need of a drastic wake-up call
• Q: Our 17-year-old is a highly spoiled
underachiever. As a junior in high school, he’s
failing two classes and borderline in the rest.
We know that his problems are largely due to
our parenting style. We read your book on
teens and have made some progress, but
we’re feeling a sense of urgency. We’re ready
to do some drastic things. Where do you think
we should start? (continued on next slide)
A: As you now realize, your son is in dire need of a major wake-up call. Start by
stripping his room down to bare essentials, taking away any and all electronic
devices, and suspending all of his privileges, including driving. Inform him that
his normal life will be restored when he has improved his grades to no less than
what he’s capable of and sustained the improvement for eight weeks. Anything
less will invite cursory improvement, then backsliding. You could get stuck in
that sort of manipulative back-and-forth forever.
Unfortunately, this is an 11th-hour action. Obviously, the earlier parents
intervene in a problem, the better the prognosis. On the other hand, it’s better to
do something late than to never do anything at all. At this point, there’s a lot of
history (and momentum) behind your son’s motivation issues. Getting him to
turn himself around is going to require a unified front and calm, purposeful
resolve. Don’t expect to see consistent progress for at least six weeks. Keep
the faith, stay the course, and be fully prepared for things to get worse before
they begin getting better.(continued on next slide)
“Why is that, John?”
Because when parents finally pull the rug of over-indulgence out from under an
underachieving child, the typical reaction is full collapse along with complaints from
the child to the effect that since he has no privilege, he now has nothing to care about;
therefore, he is not going to do anything to bring up his grades until certain privileges
are restored. Believe me, this is nothing more than manipulative self-drama, soap
opera, with a heavy dose of attempted hostage-taking thrown in. It’s an attempt to get
the parents to question their judgment and begin negotiating.
“Will you give me my cell phone back if I bring my grades up for a week?” or “If you
give me my cell phone and driving privileges back, I’ll bring my grades up, I promise.”
Don’t do it! If your son begins making promises of that sort, don’t believe a word he
says. Simply smile and tell him that if he can bring his grades up for a week, he can
surely bring them up for two weeks, then three, then eight. Keep reminding him that
you’re not asking him to do any more than he is capable of. If you give him even the
proverbial inch, he will think he can make you give up the proverbial mile. In no time,
you’ll be right back where you started from, but he will know that he can beat you at
your own game.
So, don’t play games. Go into this fully prepared for backlash of one sort or another.
His reaction is likely to include anger, self-pity, and threats of running away or other
equally silly things. This is your golden opportunity to get control of your relationship
with your son. Given that he’s 17, it may be your last opportunity. (end of assignment)