Transcript Personality

Unit 9
Fundamentals of
Individual behaviour
1
Unit
9
Unit Objectives
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
 Understand the key individual differences between people;
 Understand the factors that determine an individual’s personality;
 Understand the process of perception, factors influencing perception, and
perception distortions and errors; anf
 Understand the different theories relating to and different styles of leaning,
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UNIT 9A
INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES
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Unit
9A
Introduction
 An organisation is made up of different people working
together. Differences between individuals on the basis
of personality or other individual characteristics can be
a source of creativity or a source of conflict.
 It is important that managers learn how to recognise
individual differences and also shift their leadership
style to work effectively with different types of
employees.
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Unit
9A
Key Individual Differences
 Biological characteristics - Personal characteristics
such as age, sex, marital status, number of dependents,
tenure (seniority) etc that has impact on job
performance
 Abilities – Intellectual and Physical (importance of
Ability – Job Fit)
 Personality
 Learning styles
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Unit
9A
MARS Model of Individual Behaviour (1)
Role
Perceptions
Values
Personality
Motivation
Individual
Behaviour
and
Results
Perceptions
Emotions
Attitudes
Stress
Ability
Situational
Factors
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Unit
9A
MARS Model of Individual Behaviour (2)
Employee Motivation
M
Internal forces that affects a person’s voluntary choice
of behaviour
A
Employee Ability
Natural aptitudes and learned capabilities (together make
up the individual’s capacity) required to successfully
complete a task
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Unit
9A
Examples of Intellectual Ability
 Number aptitude
Ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic
 Verbal comprehension
Ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words to each other
 Perceptual speed
Ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and accurately
 Inductive reasoning
Ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then solve the problem
 Deductive reasoning
Ability to use logic and assess the implications of an argument
 Spatial visualisation
Ability to imagine how an object would look if its position in space is changed
 Memory
Ability to retain and recall past experiences
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Unit
9A
Examples of Physical Ability
Strength Factors




Dynamic strength –
Trunk Strength
–
Static strength
–
Explosive strength –
Ability to exert muscular force repeatedly or continuously over time
Ability to exert muscular strength using trunk (abdominal) muscles
Ability to exert force against external objects
Ability to expand a maximum amount of energy in one or a series
of explosive acts
Flexibility Factors
 Extent flexibility  Dynamic flexibility -
Ability to move trunk and back muscles as far as possible
Ability to make rapid and repeated flexing movements
Other Factors
 Body co-ordination - Ability to co-ordinate simultaneous actions of different parts of body
 Balance
- Ability to maintain equilibrium despite forces pulling off balance
 Stamina
- Ability to continue maximum effort requiring prolonged effort over
time
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Unit
9A
MARS Model of Individual Behaviour (3)
R
Role Perceptions
Beliefs about what behaviour is required to achieve the
desired results:
- understanding what tasks to perform
- understanding relative importance of tasks
- understanding preferred behaviours to accomplish tasks
S
Situational Factors
Environmental conditions beyond the individual’s short-term
control that constrain or facilitate behaviour such as time,
budget, facilities, etc
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Unit
9A
L
J
What is personality ?
Mullins
in
Management
and
Organisational
Behaviour
Relatively stable pattern of behaviours and consistent
internal states that explain a person's behavioural
tendencies
Stephen p Robbins in Organisation
Concepts, Controversies & Applications
Behaviour:
The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others
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Unit
9A
Personality - Key Argument
Individuals can be differentiated from one another based on the
following criteria :-
• Social / Cultural aspects
• Gender
• Types / traits
• Abilities
• Physique
• Motivation
• Attitudes
• Perception
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Unit
9A
Personality Determinants (1)
 Personality – Is it Heredity or is it shaped by the pressures
exerted by the environment ?
 Heredity Approach – Argues that an individual’s personality is
determined by the molecular structure of the genes located in the
chromosomes
 Shaped by environment – Argues that environmental factors play
a major role in shaping an individual’s personality
 Current argument: Considered to be made up of both hereditary
and environmental factors, moderated by situational conditions
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Unit
9A
Personality Determinants (2)
 Heredity factors – Factors that are determined at conception
such as physical stature, facial
attractiveness, sex,
temperament, energy level reflexes, etc
 Environmental factors – Such as culture, early conditioning,
family / friends / social groups norms, value systems, etc
 Situational factors – Different demands of the situation will
call forth different aspects of one’s personality
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Unit
9A
Personality Traits (1)
1.
Reserved
vs
Outgoing
2.
Less intelligent
vs
More intelligent
3.
Affected by feelings vs
Emotionally stable
4.
Submissive
vs
Dominant
5.
Serious
vs
Happy Go lucky
6.
Expedient
vs
Conscientious
7.
Timid
vs
Venturesome
8.
Tough minded
vs
Sensitive
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Unit
9A
Personality Traits (2)
9.
Trusting
vs
Suspicious
10.
Practical
vs
Imaginative
11.
Forthright
vs
Shrewd
12.
Self Assured
vs
Apprehensive
13.
Conservative
vs
Experimenting
14.
Group dependent vs
Self sufficient
15.
Uncontrolled
vs
Controlled
16.
Relaxed
vs
Tense
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Unit
9A
Models to study Personality
 Myers – Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
 Big Five Model
 Eysenck Theory of Main Personality Types
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Unit
9A
Myers – Briggs Indicator Type
 A personality test (based on 100 questions) that essentially taps
four (4) characteristics and then classifies people into 16 different
personality types
 Based on answers, individual are rated into 4 different characteristics,
namely :Extroversion versus introversion
Sensing versus intuition
Thinking versus feeling
Judging versus perceiving
 Then they are classified into 16 different types such as INTJ
(visionaries), ESTJ (good organisers), ENTP (conceptualiser), etc
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Unit
9A
Big 5 Model
 Argues that there are 5 basic personality dimensions
that underlie all mothers, namely :
Extraversion
Sociable, talkative and assertive
Agreeableness
Good natured, co-operative and trusting
Conscientiousness
Responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement oriented
Emotional Stability
Calm, enthusiastic, secure (positive) to tense, nervous
depresssed and insecure (negative)
Openess to experience
Imaginative, artistically sensitive and intellectual
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Unit
9A
Hans Eysenck Personality Types (1)
 Based on the 4 basic types introduced by Hippocrates,
Eysenck’s argument is that a person’s personality can
be positively identified and that from this description,
it is possible to predict the likely behaviours
 Four main personality types are :
Melancholy (Perfect)
Sanguine (Popular)
Phlegmatic (Peaceful)
Choleric (Powerful)
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Unit
9A
Melancholy / Perfect Personality (2)
 Strengths: Ability to organize & set
long term goals, high standards &
ideas, analyze deeply
 Weaknesses: Easily depressed, too
focused
on
details,
remembers
negatives, suspicious of others
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Unit
9A
Sanguine / Popular Personality (3)
 Strengths: Ability to talk about
anything
at
personality,
any
time,
optimism,
bubbly
sense of
humor, and storytelling ability
 Weaknesses: Disorganized, cannot
remember details, exaggerates, not
serious, too gullible and naïve.
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Unit
9A
Phlegmatic / Peaceful Personality (4)
 Strengths:
Balance,
even
disposition, dry sense of humor,
pleasing personality.
 Weaknesses:
decisiveness,
Lack
enthusiasm,
of
and
energy, a hidden will of iron.
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Unit
9A
Choleric / Powerful Personality (4)
 Strengths: Ability to take charge
of anything instantly and to make
quick, correct judgments
 Weaknesses:
Too bossy,
domineering,
insensitive,
unwilling to delegate or give
credit to others
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Unit
9A
Powerful Personality Attributes (1)
Have direct and severe impact on behaviour
Locus of control
 Machiavellianism
 Self Esteem
 Self Monitoring
Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational behaviour; Concepts, Controversies, Applications25
Unit
9A
Powerful Personality Attributes (2)
Locus of control
The degree to which you believe that you control your
own fate
Internals - Master of own fate (internals) (Believe in efforts and ability)
- Generally more satisfied
- Motivated to achieve and generally perform better on the job
- Greater attempt to control environment
- More suited to jobs that require complex information processing
and learning (managerial and professional)
Externals – Pawns of fate (Believe events are due to external causes)
- Higher levels of dissatisfaction
- More compliant and willing to follow directions
- More suited to jobs that are well structured and routine
Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational behaviour; Concepts, Controversies, Applications26
Unit
9A
Powerful Personality Attributes (3)
Machiavellianism
Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains
emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify
means
Behavioural Outcomes
High Mach – Manipulate more, win more
- Need less persuasion
- Like to interact face to face rather than indirectly
- Prefer situations with minimum rules and regulations
Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational behaviour; Concepts, Controversies, Applications27
Unit
9A
Powerful Personality Attributes (4)
Self-Esteem
Individual’s degree of like or dislike for one’s ownself
Directly related to expectation for success and job satisfaction
Behavioural outcomes
High SE – Believe that they possess more of the ability needed for work success
- Will take more risks in job selection and more likely to choose
unconventional jobs
- Usually more satisfied with their jobs
Low SE
- More prone to seek approval from others
- More prone to conform to beliefs and behaviours of those they respect
- More concerned with pleasing others and will not take unpopular stands
(in managerial jobs)
Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational behaviour; Concepts, Controversies, Applications
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Unit
9A
Powerful Personality Attributes (5)
Self Monitoring
Trait that measures the ability of an individual to adjust
his behaviour to external situational factors
Behavioural Outcomes
High SM – Highly sensitive to external cues and can behave
differently in different situations
- Capable of presenting contradictions between
public persona and private life
Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational behaviour; Concepts, Controversies, Applications 29
Unit
9A
Matching Personalities and Jobs
Holland’s Typology
Occupations
of
Personality
and
Congruent
 Argues that career success is dependent on the fit
between an individual’s personality characteristics and
occupational environment
 Satisfaction and propensity to leave a job depends on
degree to which individuals can successfully match
their personalities to a congruent occupational
environment
 Identified six personality types, namely Realistic,
Investigative, Social, Conventional, Enterprising and
Artistic
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Unit
9A
Type
John Holland’s Occupational Typology (1)
Preference
Personality
Characteristics
Congruent
Occupations
Realistic
Physical activities
that require skill,
strength & coordination
Shy, genuine,
persistent,
stable,
comforting,
practical
Assembly line
workers,
mechanics,
operators
Investigative
Activities
that
involve thinking,
organising
&
understanding
Analytical,
original,
curious,
independent
Economist,
news reporter,
mathematician
Social
Activities
that Sociable,
involve helping & friendly,
codeveloping others operative,
understanding
Social worker,
teacher,
counselor,
psychologist
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Unit
9A
Type
John Holland’s Occupational Typology (2)
Preference
Personality
Characteristics
are Conforming,
efficient,
& practical,
unimaginative,
inflexible
Congruent
Occupations
Conventional
Activities that
rule-regulated,
orderly
unambiguous
Accountants,
bank
tellers,
clerks, corporate
managers
Enterprising
Verbal
activities
where
there
are
opportunities
to
influence others &
attain power
Self-confident,
ambitious,
energetic,
domineering
Lawyers,
real
estate
agents,
public relations
Artistic
Ambiguous
&
unsystematic
activities that allow
creative expression
Imaginative,
disorderly,
idealistic,
emotional,
impractical
Painter, musician,
writer,
interior
decorator
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Unit
9A
Job Satisfaction
Appraisal of perceived job characteristics, work
environment, and emotional experience at work
Response to dissatisfaction
Exit
Voice
• Leaving the situation
• Quitting, transferring
• Changing the situation
• Problem solving, complaining
Loyalty
• Patiently waiting for the situation
to improve
Neglect
• Reducing work effort/quality
• Increasing absenteeism
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UNIT 9B
PROCESS
OF
PERCEPTION
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Unit
9B
Perception
A process by which individuals organise and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment
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Unit
9B
Factors influencing perception
Perceiver Factors
Target Factors
Attitudes
Motives
Interest
Experience
Expectations
Proximity
Novelty
Notion
Sounds
Size
Background
Proximity
Situational Factors
Time
Work setting
Social setting
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Unit
9B
Person Perception: Judging Others (1)
Attribution Theory (1)
 Originated by Heider. Argues that the process of perceiving others is
effected by attributing characteristics to them i.e. by judging their
behaviour and intentions on past knowledge and in comparison with
people whom we know
 Heider argues that behaviour is determined by a combination of
perceived internal forces and external forces.
Internal Forces
External Forces
personal attributes such as
ability, skill, amount of effort,
fatigue, etc
Environmental factors such as
organisational rules and policies,
manner of supervision
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Unit
9B
Person Perception: Judging Others (2)
Attribution Theory (2)
 One’s judgment of other people is influenced by whether the cause is seen
as internal (personal control of individual) or external (resulting from
outside causes)
 In determining whether the cause is internal or external, one is influenced
by 3 factors, namely Distinctiveness, Consensus and Consistency
 Distinctiveness – How distinct or different was the behaviour or action in
this situation compared with behaviour on other situations
 Consensus – Is the behaviour or action different from or in keeping with
that displayed by most people in similar situations
 Consistency – Is the behaviour or action associated with an enduring
personality or motivational characteristic over time or an unusual one-off
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situation caused by external forces
Unit
9B
Model of Attribution Theory
Observation
Interpretation
Attribution
High
External
Distinctiveness
Low
Internal
High
Individual
behaviour
External
Consensus
Low
High
Internal
External
Consistency
Low
Internal
Adapted from Stephen P Robbins; Organisational behaviour; Concepts, Controversies, Applications39
Unit
9B
Perception distortion and Errors (1)
Accuracy of interpersonal perception and judgment of
others influenced by :
 nature of relationship between perceiver and other
person;
 amount of information available to perceiver and order
in which information is received; and
 nature and extent of interrelation between perceiver and
other person
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Unit
9B
Perception distortion and Errors (2)
Common distortion factors (1)
 Selective perception
People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests,
background, experience and attitudes
 Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which
that person belongs
 Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single
characteristic
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Unit
9B
Perception distortion and Errors (2)
Common distortion factors (2)
 Perceptual defence
Tendency to avoid or screen out certain stimuli that are perceptually
disturbing or threatening. Normally people select information that is
supportive of their view and chose not to acknowledge contrary
information
 Projection
Attributing one’s own characteristic to other people
 Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons
with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristic
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UNIT 9B
THEORIES
OF
LEARNING
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Unit
9C
What is Learning ?
Any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience
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Unit
9C
Factors Affecting Learning
External factors
Relationships
Rewards and Punishment
Environment
Context
Methods
Internal factors
Perception
Memory
Motivation
Attitudes
Ability levels
Emotions
Adapted from L J Mullins; Management and Organisation Behaviour
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Unit
9C
Theories of Learning
Behaviourist School




Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
Thorndike’s Outcomes of Learning Theory
B F Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
Miller and Dollard’s Social Learning Theory
Complex Models
 Kolb’s Learning Cycle
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Unit
9C
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory
A type of conditioning where an individual responds to some
stimulus that would not invariably produce such a response
EG: Ivan Pavlov’s experiments on the power and strength of association
Stage 1 - Pre learning
Stimulus (Plate of Food)
Response (Salivation)
No learning – an automatic and instinctive salivation response to sight of food
Stage 2 – State of Learning
Stimulus (Plate of Food + Bell)
Response (Salivation)
Dog associates bell with sight of food
Stage 3 – S-R Bond formed and learning has taken place
Stimulus (Sound of Bell but no food)
Dog conditioned to respond to sound of bell even though no food
Response (Salivation)
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Unit
9C
Thorndike’s Outcomes of Learning Theory
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
If an action was successful and led to a reward, the
behaviour was more likely to be repeated
Experiment with cat in a box and food outside the box but within
sight of cat. Cat learns to get out (by moving latch) by trial and error.
On each attempt earlier incorrect responses were eliminated
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Unit
9C
B F Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behaviour leads to a reward or prevents a punishment
 B F Skinner argues that behaviour is learned rather than reflexive
 Positive Reinforcement : Frequency of specific behaviour will
increase if specific behaviour is followed by pleasing consequences.
 Negative Reinforcement : Frequency of a specific behaviour will reduce if
such behaviour is associated with something painful or nasty
 Intermittent reinforcement : Reward has more effect when given
intermittently
49
Unit
9C
Miller and Dollard’s Social Learning Theory
People can
experience
learn
through
observation
and
direct
Arguments
 Behaviour is a function of consequences
 People learn not just by doing but also by watching others and repeating
the actions (modelling)
Attentional Process
Retention Process
People learn from
model they recognise
or are important,
attractive or similar
to them
Model’s influence will
depend on how well
one
remember’s
model’s actions after
model is absent
Motor
reproduction
Process
Watching must be
converted to doing
Reinforcement
Process
Incentives given to
motivate one to
exhibit
modeled
behaviour
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Unit
9C
Kolb’s Learning Cycle
Concrete experiences stage
Perception of objective world
Active experimentation stage
Check out theories and hunches by
testing in new situations
Observational & reflective stage
Beginning of internalisation
Abstract conceptualisation stage
Step back from reality and draw conclusions
and generalisations
Argument: No end to learning but rather a turn of cycle
Learners are not passive receipents but need to actively explore environment
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Different individuals have different learning styles
Unit
9C
Kolb’s Learning Styles
Accommodative
Divergent
Strong preferences for
concrete
experiences
and
active
experimentation (hands
on)
Preference for concrete
experiences but to reflect
on these from different
perspectives
Assimilative
Convergent
Prefer to apply ideas, will
take an idea and test it
out in practice
Prefers to swing between
reflection
and
conceptualisation and will
use inductive reasoning
to develop new theory
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Unit
9C
Facilitating Learning
Coaching
Bring out the best in a person; Improving a person’s skill
Mentoring
A relationship with an experienced organisation member
who can share, guide and provide feedback with mentee
Adapted from L J Mullins; Management and Organisation Behaviour
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Unit
9C
Components of Successful Coaching
 First hand experience and understanding of achievement in the
workplace at a high level;
 Conceptual understanding of processes involved in achievement
and in coaching others to achieve;
 Performer-empowering attitudes and assumptions;
 Strong rapport creation and maintenance skills;
 Excellent listening skills;
 Sophisticated questioning skills
Adapted from MacLennan N, Coaching and Mentoring, Gower, 1995 as cited in L J Mullins
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Unit
9C
Next Unit
Managing
and
Promoting
Effective Communication
55