Transcript 5.27.14 Slides File

Decision Making and Effective
Management
Types of Decision Making
Models
• Rational Comprehensive
– Steps
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1. Clearly identify goals and alternatives
2. Collect information
3. Develop a full range of alternatives
4. Select the “best” alternative
5. Implement
- Advantages
– Limitations
• Incrementalism
– Steps
• 1. Goals cannot be clearly identified (goals and
means are intertwined)
• 2. Collect limited information
• 3. Develop a limited range of alternatives
• 4. Select the alternative that works
• 5. Implement
• Advantages v. Disadvantages
• Mixed Scanning
– Combination of the two
– Advantages and disadvantages
• Garbage Can Model
– “Streams”
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Participants
Problems
Solutions
Choice Opportunities
Typology of Organizations
1. Prospectors: Experiment and
try new things
2. Defenders: Protect their turf.
3. Analyzers: Combination of two
4. Reactors: No strategies =
dysfunctional
Motivation and Public Management
• Motivation is a fundamental topic in social science.
• The basic research and theory show no conclusive
evidence of a “science of motivation.” Motivation is more
of a craft; leaders draw on techniques, ideas, and
insights.
• The constraining character of government and the
political environment present challenges for motivating in
the public sector.
• A trend focusing on human capital is evidence of a
consensus of the topic’s importance.
The Context of Motivation in Public
Organizations
• Constraints:
– Complex structures
– Limitations on incentives (Rainey, Facer, and Bozeman, 1995; Thompson, 1989)
• Ambiguity
– Goal ambiguity
– Unstable and ambiguous expectations
– Lack of cohesion among work groups (Buchanan, 1974, 1975; Perry and Porter,
1982)
Environmental Influences
- Negative view of bureaucracy (Goodsell, 1970)
What is Motivation?
• In general, work motivation refers to a person’s desire to
work hard and work well.
• Exert effort on a consistent basis.
How to Measure Motivation
Questionnaire Items Used to Measure Work Motivation (Exhibit 9.1)
1.
Job Motivation Scale (Patchen, Pelz, and Allen, 1965)
This questionnaire, one of the few direct measures of job motivation, poses the following questions:
On most days on your job, how often does time seem to drag for you?
Some people are completely involved in their job—they are absorbed in it night and day. For
other people, their job is simply one of several interests. How involved do you feel in your job?
How often do you do some extra work for your job that isn’t really required of you?
Would you say that you work harder, less hard, or about the same as other people doing your
type of work at [name of organization]?
2.
Work Motivation Scale (Wright, forthcoming)
I put forth my best effort to get the job done regardless of the difficulties.
I am willing to start work early or stay late to finish a job.
It has been hard for me to get very involved in my current job. (Reversed)
I do extra work for my job that isn’t really expected of me.
Time seems to drag while I am on the job. (Reversed)
3. Intrinsic Motivation Scale (Lawler and Hall, 1970)
Intrinsic motivation refers to the motivating effects of the work itself. Researchers have measured it with
items such as these:
When I do my work well, it gives me a feeling of accomplishment.
When I perform my job well, it contributes to my personal growth and development.
I feel a great sense of personal satisfaction when I do my job well.
Doing my job well increases my self-esteem.
Questionnaire Items Used to Measure Work Motivation
4.
Reward Expectancies (Rainey, 1983)
Some surveys, such as the Federal Employee Attitude Survey, use questions about reward
expectations, such as the true-false statements that follow, to assess reward systems but also as
indicators of motivation:
Producing a high quality of work increases my chances for higher pay.
Producing a high quality of work increases my chances for a promotion.
5.
Peer Evaluations of an Individual’s Work Motivation (Guion and Landy, 1972; Landy and Guion,
1970)
For this method of measuring motivation, fellow employees evaluate an individual’s work
motivation on the following dimensions:
Team attitude
Task concentration
Independence / self-starter
Organizational identification
Job curiosity
Persistence
Professional identification
MSPB Study of Federal Employee
Engagement (2012)
Rival Influences on Performance
• Motivation alone does not determine performance.
• Other factors have an impact on performance.
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Ability
Training
Preparation
Perceptions about ability to perform
• Other factors?
Theories of Work Motivation
• One way to classify theories of work motivation is to
distinguish between content and process theories.
• Content theories of motivation are concerned with analyzing the
particular needs, motives, and rewards that affect motivation.
• Process theories of motivation concentrate on psychological and
behavioral processes behind motivation.
Content Theories
• Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs
• McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y
• Herzberg: Two-Factor Theory
• McClelland: Needs-Based Model
Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs
McGregor: Theory X and Theory Y
• Theory X is the traditional theory that assumes workers
lack the capacity for self-motivation and direction and
therefore the organization must control and direct them.
• Theory Y is based on Maslow’s higher-order needs and
emphasizes considering those needs when designing
organizations to make jobs more interesting and
responsible.
Herzberg: Two-Factor Theory
• Two types of factors influence motivation:
– Motivators (intrinsic incentives such as interest in work,
achievement, and other higher-order needs)
– Hygiene factors (extrinsic incentives such as organizational
conditions and rewards)
• Hygiene factors can only prevent dissatisfaction, but
motivators are essential to increasing motivation.
McClelland (1988): Needs-Based Model
• McClelland describes three types of motivational needs
• Achievement motivation (n Ach)
• Authority/power motivation (n Pow)
• Affiliation motivation (n Affil)
• The main focus is on achievement motivation (n Ach)
“A dynamic restlessness to achieve mastery over one’s
environment through success at achieving goals by
using one’s own cunning, ability, and effort.”
Comparing Content Theories of
Motivation
Maslow:
Hierarchy of
Needs
McGregor:
Theories X
and Y
Selfactualization
Theory Y
Herzberg: McClelland:
Two-Factor
n Ach
Motivators
N Ach
Achievement
Self-esteem
Love
Safety
Psychological
Theory X
Hygiene
Factors
Power
(influencing
others)
Affiliation
(exchange of
warm
feelings)
Adams Equity Theory Scale
Job Inputs
Job
Outputs
Job, time,
effort, ability
flexible,
commitment
honest,
collegiality,
heart,
integrity,
respecting
Paycheck,
benefits,
vacation time,
security,
recognition,
responsibility,
respect, sense
of purpose,
sense of
achievement
Perceived Balance
Input and motivation are reduced when perception of
fairness or equity (outputs) is tipped, that is, when an
employee perceives that effort is greater than reward.
What Happens When an Employee
Perceives That
More Is Given Than Received?
Perception that
pay and other
rewards do not
match effort
Reduced input:
some effort,
some
commitment,
little flexibility
Equity and Organizational Justice
• There are two types of justice in organizations:
– Distributive Justice (fairness and equity in distribution of rewards
and resources)
– Procedural Justice (fairness with which people feel employees are
treated with organizational processes such as decision making)
• Research has shown that perceptions of higher levels of
justice in organizations are correlated with positive workrelated attitudes.
Process Theories
• Vroom: Expectancy Theory
– Expectancies and dependent variables
– Expectancy theory in public organizations
• Skinner: Operant Conditioning and Reinforcement
• Bandura: Social Learning (cognitive) Theory
• Locke: Goal-Setting Theory
Vroom: Expectancy Theory
• The main claim: An individual considering an outcome
sums up the values of all outcomes that will result from
the action, with each outcome weighted by the
probability of its occurrence.
– The theory draws on the classic utilitarian ideas (maximizing
pleasure and minimizing pain) – Rational Self-Interest
Vroom: Expectancy Theory
• Based on three main ideas or concepts:
• Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with
respect to outcomes or rewards. (For example, how important are
pay, flexibility, challenge?)
• Expectancy: Employees have different expectations and levels of
confidence about their capabilities.
• Instrumentality refers to the perception of employees with
respect to whether outcomes or rewards will actually result.
Vroom’s Formula
• F[(E
P)x[(P
O)(V)]]
– Probability that a given level of effort (E) will
result in performance (P) x probability that
performance (P) will lead to an outcome (O)
with a specified valence level (V).
Expectancy Theory:
More Implications for Managers
• Valence: Managers must understand what individuals
value (extrinsic and intrinsic).
• Expectancy: If expectations are based on confidence
and ability, it is important to accurately assess skills and
weaknesses.
• Instrumentality: Performance requires that managers
come through on promises.
Expectancy Theory: Where We Stand
• Expectancies as Dependent Variables
• Expectancy type questions about relationships between
performance and pay, job security, promotion, and incentives
often show an association with reported work satisfaction and
effort.
• Use in Public Organizations
• The underlying principles still underpin many civil service
reforms and government pay systems.
B. F. Skinner: Operant Conditioning
• Skinner (1953) pointed out that
• Animals develop behaviors in response to more than just stimuli.
• Behaviors are also produced, and operate on our environment
and generate consequences.
• We repeat or drop (extinguish) behavior in response to the
consequences.
• The theory focuses on
• Operant conditioning, that is, the use of consequences to modify
the occurrence and form of behavior
• The relationship between observable behavior and
contingencies of reinforcements
Operant Conditioning:
Selected Principles of Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement provides the most efficient means of
influencing behavior. Punishment is less efficient and effective in
shaping behavior.
• Low ratio reinforcement schedule produces rapid acquisition of the
behavior but more rapid extinction when the reinforcement stops.
• Intermittent reinforcement, especially in highly variable intervals or
according to a variable ratio schedule (reinforcement after long
varying periods or after varying numbers of occurrences), requires
more time for behavior acquisition, but extinction occurs more slowly
when the reinforcement seasons.
Bandura: Social Learning Theory
• Theory is developed by Albert Bandura (1978) and
others.
• Theory reflects value and limitations of operant
conditioning and behavior modification.
• Theory draws from behavior modification, but puts
greater emphasis on internal cognitive processes, like
goals and a sense of self-efficacy.
• Theory gives attention to forms of learning and behavior
change that may not be tied to external environment.
Social Learning Theory
• A main claim is that individuals learn in ways other than
through extra reinforcement, including
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Modeling the behavior of others
Vicarious experiences
Mental rehearsal and imagery
Self-management through setting goals for oneself
Edwin Locke and Colleagues:
Goal-Setting Theory
• Theory simply states that difficult goals lead to higher
performance than easy goals, no goals, or vague goals.
• Once established, goals focus behavior and motivate
individuals to achieve desired end states.
• Commitment to the goals and feedback are also
necessary to performance.
• As the value of a goal increases the commitment to the
goal increases.
How Do Goals Affect Behavior?
• Goals may
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Direct attention
Intensify effort
Intensify persistence
Spark creativity in problem solving
• Assignment of difficult goals enhances performance because goals
appeal to motive and desire to achieve (Locke and Latham, 1990a).
•
Goals provide a sense of purpose and create standards for
evaluating performance.
• Participation in goal setting is not clearly linked to higher levels of
motivation.
Recommendations for Goal Setting
• Goal setting works best with management support.
•
The greater the success, the greater the satisfaction.
– Paradox: More difficult goals are less likely to be achieved,
leaving people unsatisfied; this, in turn, fosters ambition, pushing
people to strive to achieve further.
• Mix qualitative and quantitative goals.
• Assign responsibility for achievement of goals.
Recommendations for Goal Setting
• Empower employees to develop strategies and tactics
for achieving goals.
•
Goal setting requires effective leadership.
•
Feedback stimulates the accomplishment of goals.
• People should be committed to goals. The manager
should stress that the goals are important (have personal
value) and are attainable.
• Beware of goal overload.
• Mix qualitative and quantitative goals.
Recent Directions in Motivation Theory
• No theory has provided a conclusive explanation of
motivation.
• Researchers agree that theory development is in a
disorderly state.
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Calls for separate theories to apply to different settings
Some saying universal theories are fruitless
Calls for “middle range” theory
Calls for development of taxonomies (motivational types,
settings)
• Although disjointed, the literature on motivation remains
useful for attempting to understand the complexities of
motivation.
Incentive Structures and Reward
Expectancies in Public Organizations
• Linking rewards (especially extrinsic) to performance is
even more challenging in the public sector.
• More highly structured imposed personnel procedures- civil
service . . .
• But all government agencies are not the same
• Some pay-for-performance plans have met with success while
others have not.
• Findings are conflicting as to whether government employees
perceive the connection between extrinsic rewards and
performance.
Are Public Sector Employees
Less Motivated?
• Some argue that the different incentive structures in the
public sector diminish motivation.
• Research has not shown significant differences between
the sectors for self-reported motivation.
• In surveys, public employees have high levels on
measures related to motivation.
• Despite the constraints and frustrations found in the public
sector, public employees appear to be highly motivated.
Incentives and Motivation
Barnard and Incentives
• Worker-Specific Incentives
• Material
• Nonmaterial
• Work conditions
• Non-Specific Incentives
• Freedom from hostility
• Comfortable practices (customary)
Simon (1948)
• Employee Incentives
– Money, prestige, social, promotional
• Employer Incentives
– Power
Downs (1967)
• Bureau Ideologies
– Climbers
– Conservers
– Zealots
– Advocates
– Statesmen
Perry and Motivation
Dimensions and Questionnaire Measures of Public Service Motivation
Dimension
Attraction to Public
Affairs
Questionnaire Items
Politics is a dirty word. (Reversed)*
The give and take of public policymaking doesn’t appeal to me. (Reversed)
I don’t care much for politicians. (Reversed)
Commitment to the
Public Interest
It is hard to get me genuinely interested in what is going on in my community. (Reversed)
I unselfishly contribute to my community.
Meaningful public service is very important to me.
I would prefer seeing public officials do what is best for the community, even if it harmed my interests.
I consider public service a civic duty.
Compassion
I am rarely moved by the plight of the underprivileged. (Reversed)
Most social programs are too vital to do without.
It is so difficult for me to contain my feelings when I see people in distress.
To me, patriotism includes seeing to the welfare of others.
I seldom think about the welfare of people whom I don’t know personally. (Reversed)
I am often reminded by daily events about how dependent we are on one another.
I have little compassion for people in need who are unwilling to take the first step to help themselves.
There are few public programs I wholeheartedly support. (Reversed)
Self-Sacrifice
Making a difference in society means more to me than personal achievements.
I believe in putting duty before self.
Doing well financially is definitely more important to me than doing good deeds. (Reversed)
Much of what I do is for a cause bigger than myself.
Serving citizens would give me a good feeling even if no one paid me for it.
I feel people should give back to society more than they get from it.
I am one of those rare people who would risk personal loss to help someone else.
I am prepared to make enormous sacrifices for the good of society.
* “Reversed” indicates items that express the opposite of the concept being measured, as a way of varying the pattern of questions and answers. The
respondent should disagree with such statements if they are good measures of the concept. For example, a person high on the compassion dimension should
disagree with the statement, “I am rarely moved by the plight of the underprivileged.”
Source: Perry, 1996.