Transcript Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Methods

Intro
Final Exam Review
Intro
Chapter 1:
Introduction and
Research Methods
Major Perspectives in Psychology
• Psychology has multiple perspectives
–
–
–
–
–
Biological
Psychodynamic
Behavioral
Humanistic
Cognitive
Column A
Perspective
___1. Behavioral
___2. Biological
___3. Cognitive
___4. Cross-cultural
___5. Humanistic
___6. Psychoanalytic
___7. Evolutionary
___8. Positive
Column B
Emphasis
A. How cultural factors influence behavior
B. Darwin’s theory of natural selection
C. The study of observable behavior
D. The study of positive emotions, psychological
states, and positive individual traits
E. The unconscious, sex, aggression, conflicts,
early childhood trauma, repression
F. Physical bases of human and animal behavior
G. How mental processes work
H. Human potential, self-actualization, and free will
Similarities and Differences between
clinical psychologists and psychiatrists
• Both trained in the diagnosis, treatment,
causes, and prevention of psychological
disorders
• Clinical psychologists receive doctorate
(Ph.D. or Psy.D.)
• Psychiatrists receive a medical degree (M.D.
or D.O.) followed by years of specialized
training in treatment of mental disorders
Scientific Method
Set of assumptions, attitudes, and
procedures that guide researchers in
creating questions to investigate, in
generating evidence, and in drawing
conclusions
Scientific Method
• Formulate testable questions
– Develop hypotheses
• Design study to collect data
– Experimental
– Descriptive
• Analyze data to arrive at conclusions
– Use of statistical procedures
– Use of meta-analysis
• Report results
– Publication
– Replication
Research Strategies
1. Descriptive—strategies for observing and
describing behavior
–
–
–
–
Naturalistic observation
Case studies
Surveys
Correlational methods
2. Experimental—strategies for inferring
cause and effect relationships among
variables
Experimental Variables
• Independent variable (IV)
– the controlled factor in an experiment (i.e.
the one you manipulate)
– hypothesized to cause an effect on
another variable
• Dependent variable (DV)
– the measured facts
– hypothesized to be influenced by IV
Control of Bias
• Placebo control group—exposed to a fake
IV (placebo), the effects of which are
compared to group receiving the actual IV
• Double-blind study—technique in which
neither the experimenter nor participant is
aware of the group to which participant is
assigned
Ethical Guidelines
• Informed consent and voluntary
participation
• Students as participants
• Use of deception
• Confidentiality of information
• Information about the study and
debriefing
Using Brain Imaging in
Psychological Research
Types:
• Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
– Reveals brain activity based on blood flow,
oxygen use, and glucose consumption
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
– High resolution images w/o x-rays
• Functional MRI (fMRI)
– Reveals precise brain structure and activity
Chapter 2:
Neuroscience and
Behavior
Simple Neuron Model
• Your hand represents the "cell body"
• Your fingers represent "dendrites" bringing information to the
cell body
• Your arm represents the "axon" taking information away from
the cell body.
14
Parts of a Neuron
Basic Brain Structures
16
Neurotransmitter Release
• Action potential causes synaptic vesicle
to open
• Synaptic vesicles hold chemical
messengers called neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitter released into synaptic
gap
Types of Neurotransmitters
•
•
•
•
•
•
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Serotonin
Norepinephrine
GABA
Endorphins
Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder (OCD)
• Obsessions—irrational, disturbing thoughts that
intrude into consciousness
• Compulsions—repetitive actions performed to
alleviate obsessions
• Often accompanied by an irrational belief that failure
to perform ritual action will lead to catastrophe
• Checking and washing most common compulsions
• Deficiency in serotonin implicated and dysfunctions
in specific brain areas
Explaining Mood Disorders
• Neurotransmitter theories
– dopamine
– norepinephrine
– serotonin
• Genetic component
– more closely related people show
similar histories of mood disorders
Causes of Eating Disorders
• Perfectionism, rigid thinking, poor peer
relations, social isolation, low selfesteem associated with anorexia
• Genetic factors implicated in both
• Both involve decrease in serotonin
Biological Bases of
Schizophrenia
• Other congenital influences
– difficult birth (e.g., oxygen deprivation)
– prenatal viral infection
• Brain chemistry
– neurotransmitter excesses or deficits
– dopamine theory
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Lobes of the Cortex
• Frontal lobe—largest lobe, produces
voluntary muscle movements; involved in
thinking, planning, and emotional control
• Temporal lobe—primary receiving area for
auditory information
• Occipital lobe—primary receiving area for
visual information
• Parietal lobe—processes somatic
information
Brain
• Plasticity – capacity to change in
response to experience
– Functional plasticity - Brain has the ability
to shift functions from damaged to
undamaged brain areas
– Structural plasticity – Brain can physically
change its structure in response to
learning, practice or stimulation
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
of the nervous system
Endocrine System
• Pituitary gland—attached to the base of
the brain, hormones affect the function of
other glands
• Adrenal glands—hormones involved in
human stress response
• Gonads—hormones regulate sexual
characteristics and reproductive
processes; testes in males, ovaries in
females
Chapter 5:
Learning
Adaptation to the Environment
• Learning
–any process through
which experience at one
time can alter an
individual’s behavior at a
future time
•
•
•
•
•
•
• Identify the UCS, UCR, Neutral Stimulus/CS, and CR.
When you were still together, you and your ex used to love the same hit song by
Blink 182. Now, when you hear that song, you feel really sad.
A fourth grade teacher who was strict and scary used to wear a strong, rosescented perfume. The smell of roses now makes you very nervous.
One night when you bought a “Mighty Meal” combo at Burger Bazaar, you
arrived home to find a burger, fries, colas, and three roaches in the bag. Now,
even the sight of the Burger Bazaar logo makes you sick to your stomach.
You see a horror movie featuring many explicit and bloody murders that take
place in London, England. Now, any picture of London tends to make you feel
uneasy.
You have a crush on a fellow student who wears an expensive and elegant
leather jacket. Anytime you see a person in a leather jacket, you think romantic
thoughts about your crush.
You did really well in your psychology class and were praised by your instructor
and parents. Now when you hang out in the psychology department at school,
you tend to be in a very good mood.
B. F. Skinner’s
Operant Conditioning
• Operant—voluntary response
that acts on the environment to
produce consequences
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement—the occurrence
of a stimulus following a
response that increases the
likelihood of the response being
repeated
Positive and Negative
Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement—the addition of a
reinforcing stimulus. Response is strengthened
because something is added.
Negative Reinforcement—the removal of an
aversive stimulus. Response is strengthened
because something is removed.
Shaping Behavior
Shaping
• Consists of gradually molding a desired behavior
(response) by reinforcing any movement in the direction
of the desired response
• Gradually, responses are guided toward the ultimate goal
• Learning a piano concerto is done by teacher praising
your ability to
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Read musical notes
Play individual notes
Play the notes continuously
Play one hand of notes according to the music
Play both hands according to the music
Play the concerto slowly
Play the concerto up to tempo
Play the concerto correctly
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Punishment
Presentation of a stimulus following
a behavior that acts to decrease
the likelihood that the behavior will
be repeated
Making Punishment Effective
• Punishment is necessary to stop destructive behavior.
• Factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment:
its timing, intensity, and the consistency of application
– It is most effective when applied during the misbehavior or as soon
afterward as possible
• Punishment should be of the minimum severity
necessary to suppress the problem behavior.
• It must be applied consistently
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Behavior Modification
• Application of learning principles to
help people develop more effective or
adaptive behaviors
• Systematic use of reinforcement,
shaping, and extinction increase the
occurrence of desirable behaviors and
decreases
the
incidence
of
undesirable behaviors
Observation Learning
•
•
•
•
Observation
Modeling
Imitation
Albert Bandura and the Bobo doll
study
http://video.google.com/videoplay?do
cid=-4586465813762682933
Chapter 6:
Memory
Three Stages of Memory
• Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity,
and duration
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Long-term
Working or
Memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
Measures of Retrieval
• Recall—test of LTM that involves retrieving memories
without cues; also termed free recall
• Cued recall—test of LTM that involves remembering
an item of information in response to a retrieval cue
• Recognition—test of LTM that involves identifying
correct information from a series of possible choices.
• Serial position effect—tendency to remember items at
the beginning and end of a list better than items in
the middle.
Forgetting Theories
• Encoding failure
– Info never encoded into LTM
• Interference theories
– one memory competing with or replacing another memory
• Motivated forgetting
– Suppression and Repression
• Decay
– Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
Schema
• Organized clusters of knowledge and
information about particular topics
• Useful in organizing and forming new
memories
• Allows you to quickly integrate new
experiences into your knowledge
base
– Schemas can also contribute to
memory distortions
Memory Distortions
• Memory can be distorted as people
try to fit new info into existing
schemas
• Giving misleading information after an
event causes subjects to unknowingly
distort their memories to incorporate
the new misleading information
Gradually Losing the
Ability to Remember
Dementia: Progressive deterioration and impairment of
memory, reasoning, and other cognitive functions
occurring as the result of a disease or a condition
Alzheimer’s disease (AD): A progressive disease that
destroys the brain’s neurons, gradually impairing
memory, thinking, language, and other cognitive
functions, resulting in the complete inability to care for
oneself; the most common form of dementia
Strategies for Boosting Memory
•
•
•
•
Focus attention
Commit the time
Space study sessions
Organize the
information
• Elaborate on the
material
• Use visual imagery
• Use a mnemonic
device
• Explain it to a friend
• Reduce interference
within a topic
• Counteract the serial
position effect
• Use contextual clues
• Sleep on it
• Forget the ginkgo
biloba
Intro
Chapter 9:
Lifespan
Development
What is developmental
psychology?
• The study of how people change
physically, mentally and socially
throughout the lifespan
• The impact on individual development
is greatly influenced by attitude,
perceptions and personality.
Prenatal Development
• Germinal period—first two weeks after
conception
• Embryonic period—weeks three through
eight after conception http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPu7WVBU5GE
• Fetal period—two months after conception
until birth http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5q30ao8phNY
Prenatal Development Although it is less
than an inch long, the beginnings of arms,
legs, and fingers can already be distinguished
in the 7-week-old embryo (left).
The amniotic sac and the placenta can be
clearly seen in this photograph. The fetus
at 4 months (top right) measures 6 to 10
inches long, and the mother may be able
to feel the fetus’s movements. Notice the
well-formed umbilical cord. Near full term
(bottom), the 8-month-old fetus gains
body fat to help the newborn survive outside
the mother’s uterus.
Stages of Prenatal Development
• Teratogens
– Harmful agents in the prenatal environment
that can negatively impact on prenatal
development or even cause birth defects
• Impact depends on both intensity and the
time at which it is present during prenatal
development
• Most devastating consequences occur
during the embryonic stage
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Forms of Attachment
• Securely attached—explores the room
when mother is present, becomes upset and
explores less when mother is not present,
shows pleasure when mother returns
– Infant uses mother as “Secure Base” from which
to explore, occasionally returning
• Insecurely attached—a form of insecure
attachment in which child avoids mother and
acts coldly to her
Piaget’s Stages of Development
• Children progress through 4 distinct
cognitive stages
• Each stage represents a fundamental
change in how a child understands
the world
• Have to complete one stage before
moving to next stage
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
• Divided life span into eight psychosocial
stages,
– each associated with a different drive and
– each stage is a problem or crisis to resolve
• Outcome of each stage varies along a
continuum from positive to negative
• Relationships important to determine
outcome of conflict
Three Patterns of Parenting
• authoritarian parenting
– child rearing with high behavioral standards,
punishment of misconduct, and low communication
– More common in families with low income and/or
many children; Social pressures can influence
parenting
• permissive parenting
– child rearing with high nurturance and communication
but rare punishment, guidance, or control
• authoritative parenting
– child rearing in which the parents set limits but listen
to the child and are flexible
64
Results of Parenting Styles
• Authoritarian
– obedient, but not especially happy
– internalize feelings
– Often rebel
• Permissive
– Unhappy children with no self-control
– Immature relationships
– Tend to live at home in adulthood
• Authoritative
– successful, articulate, happy, well-liked
– Show initiative
Intro
Chapter 10:
Gender and Sexuality
Social Learning Theory
Gender roles are acquired through the basic
processes of learning, including
reinforcement, punishment, and modeling
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B8O8p0Ac1Rg
Gender Stereotypes in Disney
Gender Schema Theory
Gender-role development is influenced by
the formation of schemas, or mental
representations, of masculinity and
femininity
Intro
Chapter 11:
Personality
Personality
An individual’s unique
and relatively consistent
pattern of thinking,
feeling, and behaving.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Approach
• Conscious
• Preconscious
• Unconscious
Psychoanalytic Divisions of the
Mind
• Id — instinctual drives present at birth
– does not distinguish between reality and
fantasy
– operates according to the pleasure principle
• Ego — develops out of the id in infancy
– understands reality principle and logic
– mediator between id and superego
• Superego — conscience
– internalization of society’s moral standards
– responsible for guilt
This table shows the five major personality
factors, according to Big Five theorists
Robert McCrae and Paul Costa, Jr. Listed
below each major personality factor are
surface traits that are associated with it.
Note that each factor represents a dimension
or range between two extreme poles.
Most people will fall somewhere in the
middle between the two opposing poles.
Social Cognitive Perspective
• Reciprocal determinism — model that
explains personality as the result of
behavioral, cognitive, and environmental
interactions
Social Cognitive Perspective
• Self-efficacy — belief that people have about
their ability to meet the demands of a specific
situation
Behavioral Genetics
• Interdisciplinary field that studies the
effects of genes and heredity on
behavior
• Heredity seems to play a role in four
of the “big five” personality traits —
extraversion, neuroticism, openness
to experience, and conscientiousness
Personality Assessment
Projective Techniques
• Interpretation of an ambiguous image
• Used to determine unconscious
motives, conflicts, and psychological
traits
IntroChapter 13:
Stress, Health, and
Coping
Sources of Stress
• Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
– Outline of 43 life events from most to least stressful
– Point value assigned to each event
– Negative and positive events both cause stress
– Point totals describe impact of stress and chance
of illness over a two-year period
• Shortcomings of SRRS include:
– Individual’s coping styles not taken into account
– Good coping strategies reduce impact of each
stressful event
Hassles
– Little stressors, including irritating demands that can cause
more stress than major life changes
– Irritating, frustrating, distress demands of daily life
– Relationship troubles
– Health problems
– Hectic daily schedules
• Amount of stress from hassles can vary from person
to person
• Hassles are better predictors of psychological distress
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
General Adaptation Syndrome
• Hans Selye
• Three-stage process
1. Alarm—intense arousal, mobilization of
physical resources
2. Resistive—body actively resists stressors
3. Exhaustion—more intense arousal but this
leads to physical exhaustion and physical
disorders
The General Adaptation Syndrome
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2008
Stress and the Immune System
• Psychoneuroimmunology—studies
interaction between psychological processes,
nervous system& endocrine system, and
immune system
• Stress leads to suppressed immune function
• Chronic stress tends to have more influence
• A stress-weakened immune system increases
likelihood of illness
Response to Stress
• Psychological Factors
– Perception of control
– Explanatory style (optimism vs pessimism)
– Chronic negative emotions
– Hostility
• Social Factors
– Outside resources
– Friends and family
– Positive relationships
Social Support
• Improves ability to cope with stress and benefits
health
– person modifies appraisal of stressor’s
significance to be less threatening
– helps to decrease intensity of physical
reactions to stress
– make person less likely to experience negative
emotions
• Pets as social support
– especially for elderly and people who live
alone
• Gender and social support
Coping
• Problem-focused coping
– managing or changing the stressor
– use if problem seems alterable
• Emotion-focused coping
– try to feel better about situation
– use if problem out of our control
Combination of problem-focused and emotionfocused is the best stress-management strategy
Intro
Chapter 14:
Psychological
Disorders
Psychopathology
• Psychopathology—scientific study of the
origins, symptoms, and development of
psychological disorders
• Psychological disorder or mental
disorder - A pattern of behavioral and
psychological symptoms that
• causes significant personal distress,
• impairs the ability to function in one or
more important areas of daily life,
• or both
Diagnosis
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-IV-TR)—describes specific
symptoms and diagnostic guidelines for
psychological disorders
– Provides a common language to label
mental disorders
– Comprehensive guidelines to help
diagnose mental disorders
– http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/fu
ll/39/1/25-a
Panic Disorder
• Panic attacks—sudden episode of helpless
terror with high physiological arousal
• Very frightening—sufferers live in fear
of having them
• Agoraphobia often develops as a result
Phobias
Intense, irrational fears that may
focus on:
• Natural environment—heights,
water, lightening
• Situation—flying, tunnels,
crowds, social gathering
• Injury—needles, blood,
dentist, doctor
• Animals or insects—insects,
snakes, bats, dogs
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
(PTSD)
• Follows events that produce intense horror or
helplessness (traumatic episodes)
• Core symptoms include:
– Frequent recollection of traumatic event, often
intrusive and interfering with normal thoughts
– Avoidance of situations that trigger recall of the
event
– Increased physical arousal associated with stress
Obsessive-Compulsive
Disorder (OCD)
• Obsessions—irrational, disturbing thoughts that
intrude into consciousness
• Compulsions—repetitive actions performed to
alleviate obsessions
• Often accompanied by an irrational belief that failure
to perform ritual action will lead to catastrophe
• Checking and washing most common compulsions
• Deficiency in serotonin implicated and dysfunctions
in specific brain areas
Major Depression
A mood disorder characterized by extreme
and persistent feelings of despondency,
worthlessness, and hopelessness
– Prolonged, very severe symptoms
– Ongoing without remission for at least 2 weeks
– Global negativity and pessimism
– Very low self-esteem
Bipolar Disorders
• Cyclic disorder (manic-depressive disorder)
• Mood levels swing from severe depression to
extreme euphoria (mania)
• No regular relationship to time of year (SAD)
• Must have at least one manic episode
– Supreme self-confidence
– Grandiose ideas and
movements
– Flight of ideas
Antisocial Personality Disorder
• Used to be called psychopath or sociopath
• Evidence often seen in childhood (conduct
disorder)
• Manipulative, can be charming, can be
cruel and destructive
• Seems to lack “conscience”
• More prevalent in men than women
Dissociative Identity Disorder
• Originally known as “multiple personality
disorder”
• 2 or more distinct personalities manifested
by the same person at different times
• VERY rare and controversial disorder
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
• Positive symptoms
– hallucinations
– delusions
• Negative symptoms
– absence of normal cognition or affect (e.g., flat
affect, poverty of speech)
• Disorganized symptoms
– disorganized speech (e.g., word salad)
– disorganized behaviors
Subtypes of Schizophrenia
• Paranoid type
– delusions of persecution
• believes others are spying and plotting
– delusions of grandeur
• believes others are jealous, inferior,
subservient
• Catatonic type—unresponsive to surroundings,
purposeless movement, parrot-like speech
• Disorganized type
– delusions and hallucinations with little meaning
– disorganized speech, behavior, and flat affect
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Suicide Risk Factors
Feelings of hopelessness
Relationship problems
Poor coping skills
Poor impulse control
Rigid thinking; irrational beliefs
Major psychological disorder
Alcohol/substance abuse
Physical/sexual abuse
Self-destructive behavior
Family history of suicide
Firearm in the home
Causes of Psychological Problems
in Psychoanalysis
• Undesirable urges and conflicts are “repressed”
or pushed to the unconscious
• Unconscious conflicts exert influence on
behaviors, emotions, and interpersonal
dynamics
• Understanding and insight into repressed
conflicts leads to recognition and resolution
Humanistic Therapies
• Humanistic perspective emphasizes human
potential, self-awareness, and free-will
• Humanistic therapies focus on selfperception and individual’s conscious
thoughts and perceptions
• Client-centered (or person-centered) therapy
is the most common form of humanistic
therapy
Behavior Therapy
• Behavioristic perspective emphasizes that
behavior (normal and abnormal) is learned
• Uses principles of classical and operant
conditioning to change maladaptive
behaviors
• Behavior change does not require insight
into causes
• Often called behavior modification
Cognitive Therapy
• Based on the assumption that
psychological problems are due to
maladaptive patterns of thinking
• Therapy focuses on recognition and
alteration of unhealthy thinking patterns