Transcript Macro Organizational Behavior 2384

Learning in Organizations
Chapter 6: 167-186
Organizational Behavior 261
Gabrielle Durepos
Outline
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Towards an understanding of learning
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Different types of Learning
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Classical Learning Theories:
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 The
Behavioral Approach
 The
Cognitive Approach
 The
Social Learning Approach
Conclusions
Towards an understanding of
Learning
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A relatively permanent change in behavior or
human capabilities
Results from possessing new:
knowledge
 practice
 experience
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Different Types of Learning
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Explicit Learning
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Ordered knowledge
Can be communicated easily through people
Less subtle, can be codified
Example: Learning directions to your new office
Tacit Learning
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Cannot be easily captured, measured or codified
Not easily communicated from one person to the next
More subtle, more implicit
We know more than we can say
Example: Learning how to drive a “standard car”
Different Types of Learning
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Formal learning
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Non-Formal learning
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Usually a one time workshop; no formal qualification acquired
Usually more explicit
Informal learning
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University, College
Usually more explicit
Conscious learning from everyday life
Usually more explicit
Incidental learning
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Through activity; almost unconscious
Usually more tacit
Classical Learning Theories:
The Behavioral Approach
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Learning is understood as
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A relatively permanent change in behavior or human capabilities
Occurring through interaction with the environment -- less concerned
with cognitive process
Ivan Pavlov and Salivating Dogs
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Referred to as the father of behaviorism
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Learning as explained by classical conditioning
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Stimulus (bell) is introduced and creates no response from the subject
(salivation)
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Stimulus (bell) is continuously paired with another phenomena (food); other
phenomena (food) creates a response (dogs salivate)
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Other phenomena (food) is removed
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Stimulus (bell) is introduced and creates a response (dogs salivate)
Learning is explained as a long chain of conditioned reflexes
Classical Learning Theories:
The Behavioral Approach
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B.F. Skinner - Learning through reinforcement
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Learning occurs as a result of the introduction or removal of consequences
There are four ways of introducing / removing consequences:
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1. Positive reinforcement:
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2. Negative reinforcement:
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We remove a unpleasant consequence to increase or maintain a wanted behavior
Example – your supervisor stops criticizing you after your work improves
3. Punishment:
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We introduce a pleasant consequence to increase or maintain a wanted behavior
Example – you receive a bonus after successfully completing a project
We introduce an unpleasant consequence to decrease the frequency of a future behavior
Example – you are threatened with a demotion after treating a client badly
4. Extinction:
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We do not introduce a consequence and the frequency of the desired behavior decreases
Classical Learning Theories:
The Behavioral Approach
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B.F. Skinner – Schedules of Reinforcement
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Refers to WHEN the consequences should be introduced
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Continuous reinforcement
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Every occurrence of the desired behavior is reinforced
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Desired behaviors are learned quickly
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Extinction occurs quickly when the reinforcer is removed
Fixed interval schedule
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Reinforcement or rewards are given after a fixed amount of time
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Reinforcement does not depend on a show of wanted behaviour
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Performance increases before reinforcement & slows down after
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Example - a bi-weekly pay schedule
Variable interval schedule
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Reinforcement or rewards are administered at varied / uneven time intervals
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Performance is usually steady
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Example – promotions, audits, praise
Classical Learning Theories:
The Behavioral Approach
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Criticisms of the behavioral approach:
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Ignores individual internal mental state
Assumes that if others cannot observe a change
then learning has not occurred
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Ignores cognitive processes
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Assumes that everyone learns in the same manner
Classical Learning Theories:
The Cognitive Approach
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Learning is understood:
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As a cognitive process
As occurring independent of the environment
By theorists as how individuals perceive, evaluate feedback, represent,
store and use information
Wolfgang Köhler & Insightful Learning
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Animal problem solving does not develop incrementally through
‘stimulus-response’
Learning
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Involves insight / understanding into the whole problem at hand
Occurs suddenly
Is retained
Is done through feedback, feedback must be processed
Can be transferred to other situations, can reframe previous learning
Classical Learning Theories:
The Cognitive Approach
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Criticisms of the cognitive approach:
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Assumes that learning is done independent of
environment
We have way of observing the change in behavior
Assumes that everyone may process information in the
same manner
Classical Learning Theories:
The Social Learning Approach
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Individuals learn through:
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Observing others (model) and modeling the behaviors of those
who they perceive as credible and knowledgeable
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Observing the consequences that others experience
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Being part of a “community”
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Four interrelated processes of learning:
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Attention: actively attending to the behavior of the “model”
Memory: remembering the observed behavior
Motor: practicing the observed behavior, mimicking
Motivation: the drive to practice a learned skill
Classical Learning Theories:
The Social Learning Approach
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Lev Vygotsky – Sociocultural theory of learning
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Learning occurs as a result of an interaction between:
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Learning is:
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Not passive but dynamic
Defined by the needs of the learner and community / context
Achieved through assistance, assessment and feedback
Focus is on identifying the learners:
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A social milieu and an individual
An expert and the learner (novice) in a learning community
Upper and lower limits of ability
“zone of proximal development” refers to the learners optimal performance level
Through “scaffolding”
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Learners can perform at a level beyond what they would be capable of on their own
Expert acts as a ‘bridge’ so learner can act as if they know how to complete the given
task
Classical Learning Theories:
The Social Learning Approach
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Lave & Wenger – Situated Learning
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“Situated Learning”
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refers to development of knowledge and expertise through the activity, context, and
culture in which learning occurs
Learning is:
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Situated spatially and temporally
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A result of social interaction of learners in a “community of practice” – who have distinct
manners of “knowing”, “believing” and “valuing”
Legitimate Peripheral Participation:
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Refers to the path of individuals as they move from an apprentice to an expert
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Process where novices move from the periphery of the “community of practice” to its
center
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Novices become more engaged / participate in the culture of the “community of
practice”, gradually learn its “ways of being” and become an expert
Classical Learning Theories:
The Social Learning Approach
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Criticisms of social learning approaches
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Learning only occurs through community
membership?
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what about formal (school) and non-formal learning (oneoff workshops)?
Assumes that all new learners will be embraced by a
community of practice
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what about office politics, fear of being replaced and
losing one’s job?
Conclusions
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Vast array of learning theories
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We have moved from theories that view:
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Brain as a container of knowledge
Knowledge as easily codified and transferred
Learning theories modeled on how machines operate
Towards theories that view:
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Learning occurring due to experiences
Knowledge as acquired through relationships with others
Learning as more organic
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Which one would you use to explain how you learn?
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Are certain learning theories superior to others?