Transcript Praxis_II_PLT_Review-1

Praxis II: Principles of
Learning & Teaching
K-6 & 7-12
Review Session
1
Overview of the Principles of
Learning & Teaching Exam
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Designed to assess a beginning
teacher’s knowledge of a variety of jobrelated criteria
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Principles of Learning &
Teaching at a Glance
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2 hour test
12 short-answer questions and 24
multiple-choice questions
Format: 4 case studies, each with 3
constructed-response questions and 24
multiple choice questions
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Principles of Learning &
Teaching at a Glance
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Includes 4 case studies, each presenting
a particular teaching situation
• For each case study, you will respond to 3
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short-answer questions
12 short-answer questions will cover all of the
content areas
• Each short-answer question will be scored on a
scale of 0-2
• Each case study with short-answer answers will
require ~25 minutes –budget your time!
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Principles of Learning &
Teaching at a Glance
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Plan on ~25 minutes per case study
Allow ~10 minutes to answer each of the
two sections of multiple-choice questions
• Multiple-choice questions are not associated
with the case studies
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Content Categories
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Students as Learners (~35%)
Instruction and Assessment (~35%)
Communication Techniques (~15%)
Teacher Professionalism (~15%)
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Content Categories
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Students as Learners (~35%)
• Student development & the learning process
• Students as diverse learners
• Student motivation and the learning
environment
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Content Categories
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Instruction and Assessment (~35%)
• Instructional strategies
• Planning instruction
• Assessment strategies
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Content Categories
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Communication Techniques (~15%)
• Effective verbal and nonverbal communication
• Cultural and gender differences in
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communication
Stimulating discussion and responses in the
classroom
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Content Categories
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Teacher Professionalism (~15%)
• The reflective practitioner
• The larger community
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Student as Learners
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Student Development and the Learning
Process
• Knowing each theorist’s major ideas and
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being able to compare and contrast one
theory with another
How can these theories be applied to
teaching practice
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Student as Learners
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Student Development and the Learning
Process – Important theorists
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Albert Bandura
Jerome Bruner
John Dewey
Jean Piaget
Lev Vygotsky
Howard Gardner
Abraham Maslow
B.F. Skinner
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Student as Learners
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Albert Bandura
• Social learning theory: Theory that
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emphasizes learning through observation of
others
Social cognitive theory: Theory that adds
concerns with cognitive factors such as
beliefs, self-perceptions, and expectation to
social learning theory
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Student as Learners
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Albert Bandura
• Social cognitive theory distinguishes between
enactive and vicarious learning
• Enactive learning is learning by doing and
experiencing the consequences of your actions
(self-regulation of behavior, goal directed behavior,
self-monitoring)
• Vicarious learning is learning by observing others
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Student as Learners
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Albert Bandura
• Four elements of observational learning
• Attention
• Retention
• Production
• Motivation and reinforcement
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Student as Learners
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Jerome Bruner
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Promoted the concept of discovery learning by
encouraging teachers to give students more
opportunity to learn on their own.
Discovery learning encourages students to think for
themselves and discover how knowledge is
constructed
Discovery learning is learning in which students
construct an understanding on their own
• Related to Piaget and Dewey’s views
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Student as Learners
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John Dewey
• Viewed problem solving according to the
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scientific method as the proper way to think
and the most effective teaching method
Schools should teach learners how to solve
problems and inquire/interact with their
natural and social environments
Every learner attempts to explore and
understand his/her environment
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Student as Learners
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Jean Piaget
• Organization – ongoing process of arranging
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information and experience into mental
systems or categories
Schemes – mental systems of categories and
experiences
Adaptation – adjustment to the environment
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Student as Learners
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Jean Piaget
• Adaptation – adjustment to the environment
• Assimilation – fitting new information into existing
schemes
• Accommodation – altering existing schemes or
creating new ones in response to new information
• Equilibration – search for mental balance
between cognitive schemes and information
from the environment
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Student as Learners
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Jean Piaget
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Operations – actions a person carries out by thinking
them through instead of literally performing the actions
Four stages of cognitive development
• Sensorimotor – 0-2 yrs – involves the senses and motor
activity
• Preoperational – 2-7 yrs – stage before a child masters
logical mental operations
• Concrete operational – 7-11 yrs – mental tasks tied to
concrete objects and situations
• Formal operational – 11-adult – mental tasks involving
abstract thinking and coordination of a number of
variables
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Student as Learners
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Jean Piaget
• Goal of education should be to help children
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learn how to learn
Importance of developmentally appropriate
education
Individuals construct their own
understandings
Value of play
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Student as Learners
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Lev Vygotsky
• Sociocultural theory – emphasizes role in
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development of cooperative dialogues
between children and more knowledgeable
members of society
Children learn the culture of their community
(ways of thinking & behaving) through
interactions
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Student as Learners
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Lev Vygotsky
• Zone of Proximal Development – phase at
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which a child can master a task if given
appropriate help and support
Scaffolding – support for learning and
problem solving. The support could be
anything that allows the student to grow in
independence as a learner
Private talk
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Student as Learners
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How might a teacher apply some of Leve
Vygotsky’s ideas about scaffolding and
direct instruction in the classroom?
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Student as Learners
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Howard Gardner
• Theory of Multiple Intelligences
• Linguistic (verbal)
• Musical,
• Spatial,
• Logical-mathematical
• Bodily-kinesthetic (movement)
• Interpersonal (understanding others)
• Intrapersonal (understanding self)
• Naturalist
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Student as Learners
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What does Gardner’s work on multiple
intelligences suggest about planning
instruction?
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Student as Learners
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Abraham Maslow
• Humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging
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from lower-level needs for survival and safety
to higher-level needs for intellectual
achievement and finally self-actualization
Self-actualization – fulfilling one’s potential
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Student as Learners
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What does Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs suggest for motivation for
learning in the classroom?
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Student as Learners
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B.F. Skinner
• Operant conditioning – a form of learning
whereby a response increases in frequency
as a result of its being followed by
reinforcement
• When behaviors are followed by desirable
consequences, they tend to increase in frequency
• When behaviors do not produce results, they
typically decrease and may even disappear
altogether
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Student as Learners
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Erik Erikson
• Eight stages of psychosocial development
• Developmental crisis – conflict between a
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positive alternative and a potentially unhealthy
alternative
The way in which the individual resolves each
crisis will have a lasting effect on that
person’s self-image and view of society
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Student as Learners
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Erik Erikson’s 8 Stages
• Trust vs. mistrust
• Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
• Initiative vs. guilt
• Industry vs. inferiority
• Identity vs. role confusion
• Intimacy vs. isolation
• Generativity vs. stagnation
• Ego integrity vs. despair
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Student as Learners
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Lawrence Kohlberg
• Moral dilemmas – situations in which no
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choice is clearly and indisputably right
Stages of moral reasoning
• Level I – Preconventional Moral Reasoning –
judgment is based own person needs and others’
rules
• Level 2 – Conventional Moral Reasoning –
judgment is based on others; approval, family
expectations, traditional values, laws of society,
and loyalty to country
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Student as Learners
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Lawrence Kohlberg
• Stages of moral reasoning
• Level 3 – Postconventional Moral Reasoning –
social contract and universal ethics
• Moral reasoning – the thinking process
involved in judgments about questions of right
and wrong
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Student as Learners
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Carol Gilligan
• Proposed a different sequence of moral
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development, an Ethic of Care
Individuals move from a focus on self-interest
to moral reasoning based on commitment to
specific individuals and relationships, and
then to the highest level of morality based on
the principles of responsibilities and care for
all people
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Student as Learners
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Constructivism – a theoretical
perspective that proposes that learners
construct a body of knowledge from their
experiences—knowledge that may or
may not be an accurate representation
of external reality.
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Student as Learners
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Metacognition – One’s knowledge and
beliefs about one’s own cognitive
processes, and one’s resulting attempts
to regulate those cognitive processes to
maximize learning and memory
• Knowledge about our own thinking processes
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Student as Learners
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Schemata (plural for schema) – In
contemporary cognitive psychology, an
organized body of knowledge about a
specific topic
• Basic structures for organizing information,
concepts
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Student as Learners
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Transfer – A phenomenon whereby
something that an individual has learned
at one time affects how the individual
learns or performs in a later situation
• Influence of previously learned material on
new material
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Student as Learners
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Bloom’s Taxonomy – a taxonomy in
which six learning tasks, varying in
degrees of complexity, are identified for
the cognitive domain:
• Knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
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Student as Learners
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Make sure you can recognize the
differences between lower-order and
higher-order thinking in classroom
activities, using Bloom’s taxonomy.
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Student as Learners
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Intrinsic motivation – the internal desire
to perform a particular task; motivation
associated with activities that are their
own reward
Extrinsic motivation – motivation
promoted by factors external to the
individual and unrelated to the task being
performed; motivation created by
external factors (reward or punishment)
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Students as Diverse Learners
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Learning styles – characteristic
approaches to learning and studying
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Students as Diverse Learners
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Performance Modes
• Concrete operational thinking (Piaget)
• Late elementary to middle school
• Mental tasks tied to concrete objects and situations
• Visual and aural learners
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Students as Diverse Learners
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Gender differences
Cultural expectations and styles
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Areas of exceptionality in
student learning:
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Visual and perceptual difficulties
Special physical or sensory challenges
Learning disabilities
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD);
Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD)
Functional mental retardation
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Legislation and institutional
responsibilities relating to
exceptional students:
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Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA)
Inclusion
Mainstreaming
Least Restrictive Environment
IEP – what’s included?
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Approaches for accommodating
various learning styles,
intelligences, or exceptionalities:
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Differentiated instruction
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Alternative assessments
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Testing modifications
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Student learning is influenced
by:
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Individual experiences
Individual talents
Prior learning
Language
Culture
Family
Community Values
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Consider:
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Multicultural backgrounds
Age-appropriate knowledge and behavior
The student culture at the school
Family backgrounds
Linguistic patterns and differences
Cognitive patterns and differences
Social and emotional issues
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Let’s practice…
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Identify and describe a strength
and/or weakness in:
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a lesson plan for meeting needs of
individual students with identified special
needs, as described in the case
• Based on IEP goals?
• Age/level appropriate?
• Achievable?
• Accommodations needed?
• Other?
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Identify and describe a strength
and/or weakness in:
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the interaction between the teacher and
students in terms of culturally responsive
teaching
• Is teacher aware of cultural implications?
• Does teacher appear to value culture?
• Does teacher include families?
• Does teacher understand culture?
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Propose a strategy for:
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helping students with ADD problems
stay on task
improving performance of students who
don’t do well on homework, original
compositions or other assignments
helping students for whom English isn’t
the first language build literacy skills and
improve in academic areas
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Propose a strategy for:
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helping students see issues from
different points of view
adapting instruction and/or assessment
for an individual student with identified
needs
building positive relationships with a
student who is very turned off to school
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Propose a strategy for:
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meeting the needs of a wide range of
students (especially students with
learning difficulties and students who are
accelerated)
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Correlational relationship – the extent to
which two variables are related to each
other, such that when one variable
increases, the other either increases or
decreases in a somewhat predictable
manner
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Causal relationship – explains why
behaviors occurs
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Learned helplessness – a general belief
that one is incapable of accomplishing
tasks and has little or no control of the
environment
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Self-efficacy – the belief that one is
capable of executing certain behaviors
or reaching certain goals
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Reinforcement – the act of following a
particular response with a reinforcer and
thereby increasing the frequency of that
response
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Positive reinforcement – a consequence
that brings about the increase of a
behavior through the presentation (rather
than removal) of a stimulus.
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Negative reinforcement – a
consequence that brings about the
increase of a behavior through the
removal (rather than presentation) of a
stimulus.
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Shaping – a process of reinforcing
successively closer and closer
approximations of a desired terminal
behavior
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Extinction – In classical conditioning, the
eventual disappearance of a conditioned
response as a result of the conditioned
stimulus being repeatedly presented
alone
In operant conditioning, the eventual
disappearance of a response that is no
longer being reinforced
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Punishment – a consequence that
decreases the frequency of the response
it follows
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Continuous reinforcement – reinforcing a
response every time it occurs
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Student Motivation and the
Learning Environment
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Intermittent reinforcement – reinforcing a
response only occasionally, with some
occurrences of the response going
unreinforced
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Instruction and Assessment
Instructional Strategies
 The major cognitive processes associated with
student learning, including:
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Critical thinking
Creative thinking
Higher-order thinking
Inductive and deductive thinking
Problem-structuring and problem-solving
Invention
Memorization and recall
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Instruction and Assessment
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Major categories of instructional strategies,
including:
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Cooperative learning
Direct instruction
Discover learning
Whole-group discussion
Independent study
Interdisciplinary instruction
Concept mapping
Inquiry method
Questioning
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Instruction and Assessment
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Direct Instruction
• Madeline Hunter’s “Effective Teaching Model”
• David Ausubel’s “Advance Organizers”
• Mastery learning
• Demonstrations
• Mnemonics
• Note-taking
• Outlining
• Use of visual aids
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Instruction and Assessment
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Student-Centered Models
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Inquiry Model
Discovery learning
Cooperative learning (pair-share, jigsaw, STAF,
teams, games, tournament)
Collaborative Learning
Concept models (concept development, concept
attainment, concept mapping)
Discussion models
Laboratories
Project-based learning
Simulations
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Instruction and Assessment
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Critical thinking – Evaluating the accuracy and
worth of information of arguments.
Creative thinking – New and original behavior
yields an appropriate and productive result.
High-order thinking – Thought that involves
going beyond information specifically learned
(e.g., application, analysis, synthesis,
evaluation).
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Instruction and Assessment
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Inductive thinking – Formulating general
principles based on knowledge of examples
and details
Deductive thinking – Drawing conclusions by
applying rules of principles; logically moving
from a general rule or principle to a specific
solution
Problem solving – Creating new solutions for
problems
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Instruction and Assessment
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Inquiry method – Approach in which the teacher
presents a puzzling situation and students solve
the problem by gathering data and testing their
conclusions
Discovery learning - Bruner’s approach, in which
students work on their own to discover basic
principles
Simulations – The idea that skills and knowledge
are tied to simulation in which they were learned
and difficult to apply in new settings.
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Instruction and Assessment
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Cooperative Learning – An approach to
instruction whereby students work with their
classmates to achieve group goals and help on
another learn.
Direct Instruction – An approach to instruction
that uses a variety of techniques (brief
explanations, teacher questioning , rapid
pacing, guided and independent practice) to
promote learning of basic skills.
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Instruction and Assessment
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Discovery Learning – An approach to
instruction whereby students develop an
understanding of a topic, through
firsthand interaction with the physical or
social environment.
Concept Mapping – A diagram of
concepts within an instructional unit and
the interrelationships among them.
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Instruction and Assessment
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Madeline Hunter “Effective Teaching
Model” –
• Get students set to learn
• Provide information effectively
• Check for understanding and give guided
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practice
Allow for independent practice
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Instruction and Assessment
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Mastery Learning – An approach to
instruction whereby students learn one
topic thoroughly before moving to a more
difficult one.
Mnemonics – A special memory aid or
trick designed to help students learning
and remember a specific piece of
information.
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Instruction and Assessment
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Methods for enhancing student learning through the
use of a variety of resources and materials
• Computers, Internet resources, Web pages, e-mail
• Audio-visual technologies such as videotapes and
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compact discs
Local experts
Primary documents and artifacts
Field trips
Libraries
Service Learning
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Instruction and Assessment
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Techniques for planning instruction to meet curriculum
goals, including the incorporation of learning theory,
subject matter, curriculum development and student
development
• National and state learning standards
• State and local curriculum frameworks
• State and local curriculum guides
• Scope and sequence in specific disciplines
• Units and lessons
• Behavioral objectives: affective, cognitive, psychomotor
• Learner objectives and outcomes
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Instruction and Assessment
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Techniques for creating effective bridges between
curriculum goals and students’ experiences
• Modeling
• Guided practice
• Independent practice, including homework
• Transitions
• Activating students’ prior knowledge
• Anticipating preconceptions
• Encouraging exploration and problem-solving
• Building new skills on those previously acquired
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Instruction and Assessment
• Measurement theory and assessment-related
issues
• Types of assessments
• Standardized tests – Tests given, usually
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nationwide, under uniform procedures
Norm-referenced – Assessment of students’
achievement in relation to one another
Criterion-referenced – Testing in which scores are
compared to a set performance standard
Achievement tests – Standardized test measuring
how much students have learned in a given content
area.
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Instruction and Assessment
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Aptitude tests – Tests meant to predict future performance
Structured observations
Anecdotal notes
Assessment of prior knowledge – reminding students of
information they have already learned relative to a new topic
Student responses during a lesson
Portfolios – A systematic collection of a student’s work over a
lengthy period of time
Essays written to prompts
Journals
Self-evaluation – The process of evaluating one’s own
performance or behavior
Performance assessment – Assessment in which students
demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a nonwritten fashion
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Instruction and Assessment
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Characteristics of Assessments
• Validity – The extent to which an assessment
instrument actually measures what it is
intended to measure.
• Reliability – The extent to which an
assessment instrument yields consistent
information about the knowledge, skills, and
abilities one is trying to measure
• Norm-referenced – A score that indicates how
a student’s performance on an assessment
compares with the average performance of
other students (I.e., with the performance of a
norm group)
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Instruction and Assessment
• Criterion-referenced – A test score that specifically
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indicates what students know and can do.
Mean - The arithmetic average of a set of scores. It is
calculated by adding all scores and then dividing by the
total number of people who have obtained those scores.
Median – Middle score in a group of scores
Mode – Most frequently occurring score
Sampling strategy
Scoring assessments
• Analytical scoring – Scoring students’ performance on
an assessment by evaluating various aspects of their
performance separately
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Instruction and Assessment
• Holistic scoring – Summarizing students’ performance
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on an assessment with a single score
Rubrics – A list of components that performance on an
assessment task should ideally include; used to guide
the scoring of students’ responses
Reporting assessment results
• Percentile rank – A test score that indicates the
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percentage of people in the norm group getting a raw
score less than or equal to a particular student’s raw
score.
Stanine – A standard score with a mean of 5 and a
standard deviation of 2; it is always reported as a whole
number
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Instruction and Assessment
• Mastery levels
• Raw score – A test score based solely on the number or
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point value of correctly answered items
Grade equivalent score – Measure of grade level based
on comparison with norming samples for each grade
Standard deviation – A statistic that reflects how close
together or far apart a set of scores are and thereby
indicates the variability of the scores
Standard error of measurement – A statistic estimating
the amount of error likely to be present in a particular
score on a test or other assessment instrument
Scaled Score
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Instruction and Assessment
• Uses of assessments
• Formative evaluation – An evaluation conducted
during instruction to facilitate students’ learning
• Summative evaluation – An evaluation conducted
after instruction is completed and used to assess
students’ final achievement
• Diagnostic evaluation
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Communication Techniques
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Basic, effective verbal and nonverbal communication
techniques
The effect of cultural and gender differences on
communications in the classroom
Types of questions that can stimulate discussion in different
ways for particular purposes
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Probing for learner understanding
Helping students articulate their ideas and thinking processes
Promoting risk-taking and problem-solving
Facilitating factual recall
Encouraging convergent and divergent thinking
Stimulating curiosity
Helping students to question
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Profession and Community
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The reflective practitioner
• Types of resources available for professional
development and learning
• Professional literature
• Colleagues
• Professional associations
• Professional development activities
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Profession and Community
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Why personal reflection on teaching practices is critical, and
approaches that can be used to reflect and evaluate
• The larger community
• The role of the school as a resource to the larger
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community
Factors in the students’ environment outside of school
(family circumstances, community environments, health
and economic conditions) that may influence students’
life and learning
Basic strategies for involving parents/guardians and
leaders in the community in the educational process
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Profession and Community
• Major laws related to students’ rights and teacher
responsibilities
• Equal education
• Appropriate education for handicapped
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Appropriate treatment of students
• Reporting in situations related to possible child
abuse
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