Transcript Knowledge Base Project

Learning Theories
(Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Social Learning Theory)
Theory/Dimensions
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
SLT
Definition of Learning
Learning is a permanent
change in observable
behavior as a result of
experience.
A relatively permanent
change in mental
representations or
associations due to
experience. It is the building
of connections in schema
through a process of
assimilation and
accommodation.
An acquisition of those
behavior patterns which
society expects.
Occurs by observation and
modeling within a social
context.
Shared control between
Behavior, the environment,
and the internal events that
influence perception.
Role of behavior during
learning
Change in observable
behavior.
A change in mental
representations that are
displayed through behavior.
Behavior does not have to be
displayed at all to show
learning.
Role of internal
processing during
learning
Mental processes are not
important.
Learning occurs internally
through changes in mental
structure.
Learning occurs internally
through social experiences in
the environment.
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Behaviorism
Content Presentation
Learning Situation
Observation Checklist
Reflection
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Behaviorism
Index
Content Presentation
Behaviorist
Learning Described
Theorists
Instructional Theory based
on Learning Theory
Guide
Key Principles
Annotated Resources
Terminology
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Behaviorism
Content
Learning Described
Behaviorist
According to a behaviorist, learning is a
permanent change in observable
behavior as a result of experience.
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Behaviorism
Content
Theorists
Behaviorist
• Edwin Guthrie
• Clark Hull
• Ivan Pavlov
• B. F. Skinner
• Edward Thorndike
• John B. Watson
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Edwin Guthrie
(1886 - 1959)
Behaviorist
•Guthrie is a Classical Conditioning Theorist
•He attended the University of Nebraska where he obtained his
bachelors degree in mathematics and received his masters
degree in philosophy.
Contribution to Behaviorism
•One-Trial Learning: He suggests that the S-R connection gains
full strength in one trial.
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Clark Hull
(1884 - 1952)
Behaviorist
•Hull is a Classical Conditioning Theorist
•He received his Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of Wisconsin in
1918
Contribution to Behaviorism
•Intervening Variables: suggests unique characteristics to different
individuals will influence different responses to the same stimuli.
•Habit Strength: the degree to which a particular stimulus and a
response are associated.
•Drive: the individuals state that motivates him/herself.
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Ivan Pavlov
(1849 - 1936)
Behaviorist
•Pavlov is a Classical Conditioning Theorist
Contribution to Behaviorism
Step 1
NS
(bell)
Step 2
(no response)
NS
(bell)
UCR
UCS
(salivate)
(meat)
Step 3
CS
(bell)
CR
(salivate)
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B.F. Skinner
(1904 - 1990)
Behaviorist
•Responsible for the basic principle of Operant Conditioning.
•Operant Conditioning - responses that are followed by reinforcement increased in frequency.
Operant Conditioning
Occurs When
A response (R) is followed
by a reinforcing stimulus
(Sr)
Nature of Response
Voluntary: emitted by the
organism
Association Required
R
Sr
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Edward Thorndike
(1874 - 1949)
Behaviorist
•Law of Effect - responses to stimuli that produce a
satisfying or pleasant effect in a particular situation are
more likely to occur again in the situation. Conversely,
responses that produce a discomforting or unpleasant
effect are less likely to occur again in the situation.
•Cat Puzzle Box - Thorndike believed the box and the
motions the cat used to get out of the box was “strengthen”
by each escape from the box.
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John B. Watson
(1876 - 1958)
Behaviorist
•He established the Psychological School of
Behaviorism.
•He believed that the response that has most recently
occurred after a particular stimulus is the response most
likely associated with that stimulus.
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Behaviorism
Content
Key Principles
Behaviorist
•
•
•
Classical conditioning strengthening of strengthening of
relationship between a neutral and
unconditioned stimulus to produce
the same response – conditioned
stimulus presented to elicit a
behavior.
Operant conditioning –
strengthening of a response by a
reinforcing stimulus. Response is
reinforced after it is elicited.
Shaping/Chaining - shape behavior
to desired changed behavior.
Pleasant
Aversive
Presented
after response
Positive
reinforcement:
increases
response (ex.
Tokens)
Punishment I:
Decreases
response (ex.
Scolding)
Removed after
response
Punishment II:
Decreases
response (ex.
No TV, no
computer)
Negative
reinforcement:
Increases
response (ex.
No Homework)
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Behaviorism
Content
Terminology
Behaviorist
Stimulus
An act to arouse a reaction.
Response
The action visible in response to a stimulus.
Equipotentiality
The assumption that humans and animals learn in
similar ways.
Extinction
The disappearance of a conditioning response
when a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly
presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Stimulus
Generalization
When individuals response to another stimulus in
the same way they respond to conditioned stimuli.
Example: A child is afraid of white rabbits and then
is afraid of Santa’s White Beard…
Superstitious
Behavior
Increase in response based on randomly
dispensing of reinforcer.
Terminal
Behavior
Expected behavioral response as a result of
learning experience.
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Behaviorism
Content
Instructional Theories
Behaviorist
•
Programmed Instruction (PI) process and methods to shape
behavior. A way to chunk large
amounts of information, set
students to learn it, and then test
them.
•
•
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
- This is programmed instruction
supported by computers.
•
Mastery Learning - Students are
tested in a smaller area of the
content and become a master.
Once the student has displayed
his/her knowledge, they move onto
the next set of content to master. As
the student masters the content,
they start to piece together all the
content to visual the whole picture.
Criterion reference instruction – A
set of objectives that is clear and
mastery is involved and self paced.
You need to prove you have
changed behavior and it is
facilitated by an instructor to check
on progress. The test is designed
first, then the instruction is aligned
to the test.
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Behaviorism
Index
Learning Situation
Behaviorist
Students are expected to create a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. They are given
two pieces of bread, a jar of jelly and a jar of peanut butter, a knife and a paper
plate.
The instructor tells the students they can eat their sandwich once they have
completed the following steps correctly and asks the students to follow her steps
as she opens the peanut butter jar, dips the knife in and scoops out peanut
butter and applies it to one slice of bread. As the instructor does so she
provides praise for those students who have successfully completed the small
task and offers assistance to those students who are having difficulty with the
task (This is an example of programmed instruction. The teacher giving praise
to students is feedback and providing assistance to those students having
difficulty is called shaping.). She does the same steps using the jelly and other
slice of bread (Again, shaping, feedback, and programmed instruction is taking
place. The stimulus is the task of creating the sandwich and the response is the
completed sandwich made by the student.).
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Behaviorism
Index
Observation Checklist
Behaviorist
Behaviorism Checklist
Not Observed
Very Few
Several Times
Observed A Lot
Learning outcome is stated prior to activity.
Acceptable behavior for activity is stated.
The instruction or information has been broken into small
chunks and provided to students.
Shaping and feedback is provided by instructor to the
student to help student grasp the small chunked
information.
Students master the small chunked information before
proceeding to the next succession of steps.
The expected responses by students is reinforced
immediately by instructor.
The expected responses by students is reinforced
sporadically by instructor.
Positive reinforcement to increase student response given
after the response.
Punishment I was given to decrease response after the
student displayed the response.
Punishment II was give to decrease student response after
the response was presented.
Negitive reinforcement was given to increase response
after the response was displayed.
Provided positive feedback.
Used a token system (providing candy or stickers)
Activity reinforcers : allowing students to play on computer
after completing objective.
Other Observations:
Other Observations:
Other Observations:
Other Observations:
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Behaviorism
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Reflection
Behaviorist
How does theory inform design?
Behaviorism informs design because behaviorists define learning differently from others. If I enter a work environment where I am to
create an instructional design for the company and I do not ask the students to display the knowledge learned in an observable
manner to the stakeholders (the company who hired me to create the instructional design), then the stakeholders will claim the
students did not learn. It could be the case that the students did learn however the stakeholder and I have different
understandings of what it means to learn.
Open questions on theory:
I am still confused about Positive/Negative Reinforcement verses Punishment I and II. I really had to check back with my notes while
writing up those sections. It is hard for me to keep them straight.
I would also like to read some more examples or case studies of equipotentiality.
How class activities reflected this theory:
The class activities that were most helpful to me while learning about behaviorism was when we worked in groups and discussed the
scenarios in behaviorists terms. I like that we were asked to think like behaviorists and corrected when we did not use behaviorist
terms. For example if I said learning is attained in my brain, I was told my learning was displayed as a change. During the first
class we were asked to follow the steps of our professor and we were given small segments to draw. As we mastered the steps
w were given praise or re-guided if we drew incorrectly. As we progressed we discovered we had just learned how to draw an
elephant. We were asked questions about behaviorism and if we said the correct answer we received a small piece of candy
(token system). The little white paper booklets done in class was an example of programmed instruction (PI).
How your ideas about learning and instruction have changed:
My ideas of learning have changed because I am now more aware that people have many different beliefs about learning and what it is.
I did not realize that if I held a conversation with a behaviorist prior to this class we would have confused each other unless we
stated what we believed learning was/is. Instruction will change for me because I will be sure to provide many ways of
completing one task to display knowledge attained by students.
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Behaviorism
Content
Guide
Behaviorist
This is a 2 page step-by-step
guide illustrating how to make a
Peanut Butter and Jelly Sandwich!
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Behaviorism
Content
Annotated Resources
Behaviorist
This is a list of resources with an
abstract of each site.
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Cognitive
Content Presentation
Learning Situation
Observation Checklist
Reflection
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Cognitive
Index
Content Presentation
Cognitive
Learning Described
Theorists
Instructional Theory based
on Learning Theory
Advanced Organizer
Key Principles
Annotated List
Terminology
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Content
Presentation
Learning Described
Cognitivist
A relatively permanent change in mental
representations or associations due to experience. It
is the building of connections in schema through a
process of assimilation and accommodation.
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Content
Presentation
Theorists
Cognitivist
• Gestalt
• Piaget
• Tolman
• Vygotsky
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Gestalt
Cognitivist
•Contributions between 1920-1950
•Believes perception is different from reality
•The whole is more than the sum of its parts
•Organisms structure and organize experiences
•Learning involves formation of memory traces (example: I smell
the scent of a cookie and I am brought back to the coffee shop
Breaking New Grounds. The link between the schema)
•Problem solving involves restructuring and insight
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Piaget
Cognitivist
•Contributions between 1920-1960
•Focus on mental events, logical reasoning and structure of
knowledge
•Active processors of information
•Knowledge structures that change with development - schema
•Processes through which people interact with the environment
are constant (assimilation/accommodation)
•Relate prior knowledge to the material to be learned
•People are intrinsically motivated to make sense of the world
•Cognitive development occurs in stages, controlled by
maturation.
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Tolman
Cognitivist
•Contributions between 1930-1950
•Internal mental phenomena in explanations of learning
•Learning can occur without reinforcement, change in behavior
•Behavior is purposive and is goal-directed
•Learning results in an organized body of information - concept
maps.
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Vygotsky
Cognitivist
•Contributions between 1960-1990
•Translated skill
•Complex mental processes begin aas social activities,
internalized mental activities.
•ZPD (zone of proximal development) - Interactive problem
solving. You grow until you need help, then you receive
scaffolding.
•Scaffolding - guidance that enables students to engage in
activities inside ZPD.
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Content
Presentation
Key Principles
Cognitivist
•
•
•
Learning is a process of relating
new information to previously
learned information.
Learning involves the formation of
mental representations or
associations that are not always
reflected in the behavior.
Inferences about unobservable
metal processes can be drawn from
behavior.
•
•
•
•
Cognitive processes
(information processing) are the
focus of study.
Individuals are actively involved
in the learning process
Knowledge is organized and
stored in schema and ore
scripts
Some learning processes are
unique to human beings.
Executive Control (motivation, attention, interest)

Sensory Register  short term memory  working memory  long-term memory  retrieval


Data Lost Data Lost
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Content
Presentation
Terminology
Cognitivist
Memory Traces
The links between all pieces of schema.
Mnemonic
A catchy word or phrase to assist memory. Ex.
FACE: the notes in the spaces of a musical bar.
Assimilations
Modify perception of environment to fit schema.
Accommodation
Modify schema to fit environment.
Schema
A pattern that represents the data's model defining
the elements (or objects), their attributes (or
properties), and the relationships between the
different elements.
Scaffolding
Guidance that enables students to engage in
activities inside ZPD.
Advanced
Organizer
Helps a student prepare to learn new information,
an attention getting device. A series of questions
or defintions.
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Content
Presentation
Instructional Theories
Cognitivist
• Gagne - 9 Events of
Instruction: provides
framework for the elements
of cognitive theory (gain
attention, inform learners of
objectives, stimulate recall of
prior learning, present the
content, provide “learning
guidance,” elicit
performance, provide
feedback, assessment
performance, and enhance
retention and transfer to the
job.)
• Ausubel - presenting
information upfront to help
people to think about what
you want people to learn
(Advanced Organizers)
• Elaboration Theory - build on
knowledge. Present the
simplest form of a complex
task and continue to
introduce complexity until the
entire complex task has
been learned.
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Content
Presentation
Advanced Organizer
Cognitivist
This is a 2 page document that would be given to students prior to
learning about Cognitivism. It would help students become familiar
with terms prior to digging deeper into the knowledge.
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Annotated Resources
Cognitivist
This is a list of resources with an
abstract of each site.
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Cognitive
Index
Learning Situation
Cognitive
Students are expected to create a peanut butter and jelly sandwich. They are given two pieces
of bread, a jar of jelly and a jar of peanut butter, a knife and a paper plate.
The instructor is eating a peanut butter and jelly sandwich as the students enter the room right
before their normal snack time. All the students stare as she eats her sandwich (gains
attention). Once all eyes are on her she tells the students they will learn how to make the
sandwich and gives them an outline of the steps, an advanced organizer which has pictures
on it (goals have been stated). She asks some students to share their experiences of
watching someone make a peanut butter and jelly sandwich (recall of past experiences and
relate the learning to themselves). The instructor shows the students a video of Burt and
Ernie making a peanut butter and jelly sandwich and sharing it with Big Bird. She asks the
students to follow along with her verbal, step-by-step instructions to make each their own
sandwich (these steps are also on their advanced organizers, this is also practice). The
teacher provides feedback to help the students create the sandwich. Once the students
have completed the task they are asked to exchange sandwiches and judge a peers’
sandwich and provide feedback. While enjoying the sandwiches the students discuss what
other sandwiches they can now make based on this new learned knowledge (assimilation).
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Cognitive
Index
Observation Checklist
Cognitive
Cognitive Checklist
Yes
No
Comments
The instructor gains the attention of
the students.
The instructor informs learners of the
objectives.
The instructor creates a level of
expectation for the learners.
The instructor stimulates the recall of
learns' prior knowledge.
Once information has been provided to
the student is the information recalled
from the short-term memory…is the
information called upon frequently?
Was the content presented in a
number of ways?
Text
Technology (media/projector)
Audio
Other
The instrcutor provided scaffolding.
Provided "learning guidance" to help
students store and learn information.
Did the students practice what they
learned?
How?
Did the instrcutor provide feedback to
reinforce the assessment of the
correct performance?
Was there an assessment where
students retreived knowledge learned?
Was the material learned related to
the "real world" or to the students so
it was meaningful to them?
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Cognitive
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Reflection
Cognitive
How does theory inform design?
Cognitivism informs design because cognitvists define learning differently from others. It is important for me to
know this because I would design instruction differently. I would want to make sure my information was
organized and that is built on my current audiences knowledge base. I would not want to try to teach
second graders how to divide numbers if they had not yet learned how to multiply numbers. I would have to
teach them multiplication first.
Open questions on theory:
Is an advanced organizer the same thing as an outline or are those two different items? Can they be considered
the same thing?
How class activities reflected this theory:
In class activities that reflected this theory were things like:
Shutting the projector off and lecturing while we took notes.
Applying cognitive ideas to the 3 different learning situations.
The diagrams displayed on the board.
The way the material was presented: we read it, heard it, talked about it, saw it in diagrams…
How your ideas about learning and instruction have changed:
My ideas of learning have changed because I am now more aware that people have many different beliefs about
learning and what it is. I did not realize that if I held a conversation with a cognitivist prior to this class we
would have confused each other unless we stated what we believed learning was/is. Instruction will change
for me because I will be sure to provide information in an organized fashion in the hopes of building on
existing schema to provide meaning to my students.
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Socialists
Content Presentation
Learning Situation
Observation Checklist
Reflection
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Socialist
Index
Content Presentation
Socialist
Learning Described
Theorists
Instructional Theory based
on Learning Theory
Diagram
Key Principles
Annotated List
Terminology
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Content
Presentation
Learning Described
Socialist
• An acquisition of those behavior patterns
which society expects.
• Occurs by observation and modeling within a
social context.
• Shared control between Behavior, the
environment, and the internal events that
influence perception.
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Theorists
Socialist
• Albert Bandura
• Lev Vygotsky
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Albert Bandura
Socialist
•Reciprocal Determinism - The world and a person’s behavior
cause each other.
•The Bobo Doll Studies - Proves punishment/reinforcement does
not need to be present for learning to occur.
•Modeling Process Steps
•Attention
•Retention
•Reproduction
•Motivation
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Lev Vygotsky
Socialist
•Proposed that social interaction profoundly influences cognitive
development.
•Biological and cultural development do not occur in isolation.
•Development is a life long process dependent on social
interaction and that social learning actually leads to conitive
development.
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Key Principles
Socialist
•
•
•
The nature of humans is social,
•
therefore we learn through
social interactions.
•
We learn by observing the
behavior of others and the
outcomes of those behaviors.
The role of consequences is
present in the learning process,
•
such as reinforcement and
punishment (do not always
need reinforcement/
punishment).
Perception
Behavior
Learning can occur without a
change in behavior.
Cognitive processes play a role
in learning - awareness,
expectation of future
reinforcements/ punishments,
attention…
Self-regulation and -efficacy
play a major role in learning.
Environment
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Terminology
Socialist
Self-regulation
Controlling our own behavior. Example: If my
classmate screams out in rebellion during class
and has to take a test, I am not going to do the
same thing because I do not want to take the test.
Self-efficacy
Students’ own judgment of their own capabilities.
Modeling (Live,
Symbolic &
Verbal)
Live - an actual person demonstrating the
behavior. Symbolic - a person or action portrayed
in some other medium. Verbal - detailed
description of how to behave (ex. Ms. Manners)
Selfreinforcement
The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing
consequences.
Direct
Reinforcement
Example: Student answers a question correctly
and receives a piece of candy.
Vicarious
Reinforcement
3rd party praise.
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Instructional Theories
Socialist
•
•
•
•
•
Expository modeling and demonstration - Students modeling after each
other. Example: In a lab setting one student group has cut a frog open
correctly, the teacher asks all the students to gather around the group
for the group to explain how they did it correctly.
Collaborative and cooperative learning - Students working in groups to
solve a problem or to discuss topics.
Apprenticeship - Example: Student teaching. When students watch
and learn from an “ideal teacher” model. The student writes notes,
asks questions and learns.
Role playing - To put oneself in another’s place in a particular situation
to examine the person or situation being improvised.
Reciprocal teaching - Students are involved in summarizing, generating
questions, and predicting as they read texts and observe phenomena.
The students and teachers are responsible for learning equally.
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Diagram
Socialist
•
•
Source:
http://web.syr.edu/~walker/SOCIALLEARNINGTHEORIES.htm
I realize I have taken this diagram from someone in the course
(I could not find the citation for this specific diagram or I would
have cited the original work), however, I felt it was a great
illustration for explanation of social learning theory. I think
Bandura’s triangle should be taught but this diagram should also
be used. During 11/7’s class when Tiffany asked students
where learning takes place in the triangle, I had a hard time
identifying where it took place. This diagram brings all the
elements together for me. They key terms we used in class are
on the outside circle which all effect the inner circle (B, E and P)
and of course, this effects the learning that will or can take
place.
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Socialist
Index
Learning Situation
Socialist
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Socialist
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Observation Checklist
Socialist
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Socialist
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Reflection
Socialist