Transcript Organizational Behavior 11e - Stephen P. Robbins

Foundations of
Individual Behavior
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR
S T E P H E N P. R O B B I N S
E L E V E N T H
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E D I T I O N
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PowerPoint Presentation
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OBJECTIVES
LEARNING
After studying this chapter,
you should be able to:
1. Define the key biographical characteristics.
2. Identify two types of ability.
3. Shape the behavior of others.
4. Distinguish between the four schedules of
reinforcement.
5. Clarify the role of punishment in learning.
6. Practice self-management
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2–1
Biographical Characteristics
Biographical Characteristics
Personal characteristics—such as age, gender,
and marital status—that are objective and
easily obtained from personnel records.
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2–2
Ability, Intellect, and Intelligence
Ability
An individual’s capacity to perform
the various tasks in a job.
Intellectual Ability
The capacity to do mental activities.
Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence contains four subparts:
cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.
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2–3
Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983)
Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University, USA
• The traditional notion of intelligence, based on I.Q.
testing, is far too limited. Instead, Dr. Gardner
proposes eight different intelligences to account for a
broader range of human potential in children and
adults. These intelligences are:
1. Linguistic intelligence ("word smart")
2. Logical-mathematical intelligence
("number/reasoning smart")
3. Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
5. Musical intelligence ("music smart")
6. Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
7. Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
8. Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")
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Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983)
(Key points)
 Dr. Gardner says that our schools and culture focus most of their attention on
linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence.
 We esteem the highly articulate or logical people of our culture.
 However, Dr. Gardner says that we should also place equal attention on
individuals who show gifts in the other intelligences: the artists, architects,
musicians, naturalists, designers, dancers, therapists, entrepreneurs, and others
who enrich the world in which we live. Unfortunately, many children who have
these gifts don’t receive much reinforcement for them in school.
 Many of these kids, in fact, end up being labeled "learning disabled," "ADD
(attention deficit disorder," or simply underachievers, when their unique ways of
thinking and learning aren’t addressed by a heavily linguistic or logicalmathematical classroom.
 The theory of multiple intelligences proposes a major transformation in the way
our schools are run.
 It suggests that teachers be trained to present their lessons in a wide variety of
ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role play, multimedia, field
trips, inner reflection, and much more.
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2–5
Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983)
(Key points, continued…)
The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong
implications for adult learning and development.
 Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make
optimal use of their most highly developed intelligences (e.g.,
the highly bodily-kinesthetic individual who is stuck in a
linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much
happier in a job where they could move around, such as a
recreational leader, a forest ranger, or physical therapist).
 The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole
new way to look at their lives, examining potentials that they
left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art or drama)
but now have the opportunity to develop through courses,
hobbies, or other programs of self-development
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2–6
Dimensions of Intellectual Ability
• Number aptitude
Deductive Reasoning
• Verbal comprehension
• Perceptual speed
• Inductive reasoning
• Deductive reasoning
• Spatial visualization
Inductive Reasoning
• The ability to mentally
manipulate 2-dimensional and
3-dimensional figures
• Memory
Spatial:
(1) of or pertaining to space (2) existing or occurring in space; having extension in space.
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The Ability-Job Fit
Employee’s
Abilities
Ability-Job
Fit
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Job’s Ability
Requirements
2–8
Learning
Learning
Any relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs as a result of experience.
Learning
• Involves change
• Is relatively permanent
• Is acquired through experience
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2–9
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
(1849 - 1936)
Russian physiologist
2–10
Theories of Learning
1. Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
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2–11
Classical Conditioning: Key concepts explained…
1.1 Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditionally, naturally, and automatically
triggers a response. For example, when you
smell one of your favorite foods, you may
immediately feel very hungry. In this example,
the smell of the food is the unconditioned
stimulus.
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2–12
Classical Conditioning: Key concepts explained…
1.2 Unconditioned Response
The unlearned response that occurs naturally in
response to the unconditioned stimulus. For
example, if the smell of food is the
unconditioned stimulus, the feeling of hunger in
response to the smell of food is the
unconditioned response.
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2–13
Classical Conditioning: Key concepts explained…
1.3 Conditioned Stimulus
Previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated
with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a
conditioned response.
Suppose that the smell of food is an unconditioned stimulus
and a feeling of hunger is the unconditioned response. Now,
imagine that when you smelled your favorite food, you also
heard the sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to
the smell of the food, if the sound of the whistle was paired
multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually
trigger the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of
the whistle is the conditioned stimulus.
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Classical Conditioning: Key concepts explained…
1.4 Conditioned Response
The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.
For example, let's suppose that the smell of food is an
unconditioned stimulus, a feeling of hunger in response
the smell is a unconditioned response, and a the sound
of a whistle is the conditioned stimulus. The conditioned
response would be feeling hungry when you heard the
sound of the whistle.
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2–15
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
(1904 – 1990)
PhD from Harvard University in 1931
American behaviorist, author, inventor, social philosopher and poet.
2–16
Operant Conditioning
or
Instrumental Conditioning
or
Skinnerian Conditioning
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2–17
Theories of Learning (cont’d)
2. Operant (or Instrumental) Conditioning
A method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a
behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
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2–18
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning was coined by behaviorist B.F.
Skinner, which is why, you may occasionally hear it
referred to as Skinnerian Conditioning.
As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal thoughts
and motivations could not be used to explain behavior.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the
external, observable causes of human behavior.
Skinner used the term operant to refer to any "active
behavior that operates upon the environment to
generate consequences" (1953). In other words,
Skinner's theory explained how we acquire the range of
learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.
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2–19
Examples of Operant Conditioning
We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all
around us. Consider the case of children completing
homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or
employees finishing projects to receive praise or
promotions.
In these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards
causes an increase in behavior, but operant conditioning
can also be used to decrease a behavior. The removal of
an undesirable outcome or the use of punishment can be
used to decrease or prevent undesirable behaviors. For
example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges
if they talk out of turn in class. This potential for punishment
may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.
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Four types of learning processes in
Operant Conditioning
… a learning process that involves an increase or decrease in the
likelihood of some behavior as a result of the consequences.
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Positive punishment
4. Negative punishment.
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Four types of learning processes in
Operant Conditioning (cont’d…)
A reinforcer is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it
follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:
A) Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are
presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive
reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the
addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward.
B) Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable
events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these
situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something
considered unpleasant.
In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.
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Components of Operant Conditioning
(cont’d…)
Punishment, on the other hand, is the presentation of an
adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the
behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:
A) Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as
punishment by application of an adverse stimulus,
involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or
outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.
B) Negative punishment, also known as punishment
by removal of a pleasant stimulus, occurs when an
favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior
occurs.
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reserved.
Operant Conditioning Examples
Examples of Positive Reinforcement
1. We may continue to go to work each day
because we receive a paycheck on a
weekly or monthly basis.
2. If we receive awards for writing short
stories, we may be more likely to increase
the frequency of writing short stories.
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Operant Conditioning Examples
Examples of Negative Reinforcement
Imagine that you decided to open a window in your
home. However, you are not happy with the noise from
the traffic. Thus, you decide to turn on the radio and
listen to music. This makes the traffic noise less
noticeable. The frequency in which you turn on the
radio when the window is open has increased. This
would
be
an
example
of
negative
reinforcement. Turning on the radio has resulted in a
decrease in the unpleasantness of the traffic noise.
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Operant Conditioning Examples
Examples of Positive Punishment
1. The negative behavior of an employee decreases as
the result of being criticized by a supervisor.
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Operant Conditioning Examples
Examples of Negative Punishment
1. The frequency in which an employee is
late for work deceases as a result of
losing the right to listen to music while
s/he works.
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Negative Reinforcement
vs. Punishment
It is important to not confuse negative
reinforcement and negative punishment.
They are different.
Negative reinforcement involves an
increase in a behavior.
In contrast, punishment involves a
decrease in a behavior.
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The definition requires that
punishment is only determined
after the fact by the reduction in
behavior; if the offending behavior
of the subject does not decrease
then it is not considered
punishment.
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Do positive reinforcement techniques
lead to ideal employees in a company?
 It depends…
 The use of positive reinforcement techniques
may result in people becoming more
extrinsically motivated.
 The ideal employee may be one who is
intrinsically motivated and does not require
constant supervision. Intrinsically motivated
employees may be less likely to be late. They
also may be more likely to excel at their jobs.
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Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that
moves an individual closer to the desired response.
Key Concepts
• Reinforcement is required to change behavior.
• Some rewards are more effective than others.
• The timing of reinforcement affects learning
speed and permanence.
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2–31
Methods of Shaping Behavior
• Positive reinforcement
– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
• Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the
desired behavior occurs.
• Punishment
– Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an
undesirable behavior.
• Extinction
– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its
cessation.
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Example of Extinction
If the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus)
had been paired with the sound of a whistle (the
conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come
to evoke the conditioned response of hunger.
However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the
smell of food) were no longer paired with the
conditioned stimulus (the whistle), eventually
the conditioned response (hunger) would
disappear.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• In real-world settings, behaviors are probably not
going to be reinforced each and every time they
occur.
• For situations where you are purposely trying to train
and reinforce an action, such as in the classroom, in
sports or in animal training, you might opt to follow a
specific reinforcement schedule.
• Some schedules are best suited to certain types of
training situations.
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2–34
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d…)
• In some cases, training might call for starting out
with one schedule and then switching to another
once the desired behavior has been taught.
• A schedule of reinforcement is basically a rule stating
which instances of a behavior will be reinforced.
• In some case, a behavior might be reinforced every
time it occurs.
• Sometimes, a behavior might not be reinforced at all.
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2–35
Two Types of Reinforcement Schedules
1. Continuous Reinforcement
2. Partial Reinforcement
2.1 Fixed-ratio schedules
2.2 Variable-ratio schedules
2.3 Fixed-interval schedules
2.4 Variable-interval schedules
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2–36
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.
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2–37
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are given at variable
time.
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2–38
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-ratio
E X H I B I T 2–4
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2–39
Intermittent Schedules of
Reinforcement
E X H I B I T 2–5
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2–40
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
E X H I B I T 2–5 (cont’d)
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2–41
Choosing a Schedule
1. Deciding when to reinforce a behavior can
depend upon a number of factors.
2. In cases where you are specifically trying to
teach a new behavior, a continuous schedule is
often a good choice.
3. Once the behavior has been learned, switching
to a partial schedule is often preferable.
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Choosing a Schedule (cont’d…)
 Realistically, reinforcing a behavior every single
time it occurs can be difficult and requires a
great deal of attention and resources.
 Partial schedules not only tend to lead to
behaviors that are more resistant to extinction,
they also reduce the risk that the subject will
become satiated.
 If the reinforcer being used is no longer desired
or rewarding, the subject may stop performing
the desired behavior.
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Dr. Albert Bandura (a.k.a. ‘greatest living psychologist’)
(Born in 1925)
Currently: Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford
University, USA
A 2002 survey ranked Bandura as the fourth most-frequently cited
psychologist of all time, behind B.F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, and Jean
Piaget, and as the most cited living one.
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Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Bandura's Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct experience.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention
hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their
own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most
human behavior is learned observationally through modeling:
from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded
information serves as a guide for action.”
- Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977
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Bandura's Social-Learning Theory
The social learning theory proposed by Albert Bandura has
become perhaps the most influential theory of learning and
development.
While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional
learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement
could not account for all types of learning.
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can
learn new information and behaviors by watching other
people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this
type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of
behaviors.
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2–46
Behavior Modification
OB Mod
The application of reinforcement concepts
to individuals in the work setting.
Five Step Problem-Solving Model
1. Identify critical behaviors
2. Develop baseline performance data
3. Identify behavioral contingencies or consequences of performance
4. Develop and apply intervention strategy to strengthen desirable
performance behaviors and weaken undesirable ones.
5. Evaluate performance improvement
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2–47