Transcript 04 Prenatal Development and the Newborn. Infancy and Childhood

Age Peculiarities Of
Emotional Behavior
Motor Development in Infancy and
Childhood
• 2 months – able to lift head up on his
own
• 3 months – can roll over
• 4 months – can sit propped up without
falling over
• 6 months – is able to sit up without
support
• 7 months – begins to stand while
holding on to things for support
Motor Development in Infancy and
Childhood
• 9 months – can begin to walk, still
using support
• 10 months – is able to momentarily
stand on her own without support
• 11 months – can stand alone with more
confidence
• 12 months – begin walking alone
without support
Motor Development in Infancy and
Childhood
• 14 months – can walk backward
without support
• 17 months – can walk up steps with
little or no support
• 18 months – able to manipulate objects
with feet while walking, such as kicking
a ball
Cognitive Development in Children
• Probably the most cited theory in the
cognitive development in children is Jean
Piaget (1896-1980). As with all stage
theories, Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive
Development maintains that children go
through specific stages as their intellect and
ability to see relationships matures.
• These stages are completed in a fixed order
with all children, even those in other
countries. The age range, however can vary
from child to child.
Sensitive Period
•
•
Many theorists agree that the changes that
constitute development are produced by the
interaction of genetic endowment and
environmental factors.
An important concept on which many
psychologists agree is the concept of Critical or
Sensitive Period. By this, it is meant that what is
important at one stage in life may not be so at
some later point. That is, sensitive period
means that there are certain periods in
development during which certain important
events will have an impact that they would not
have with the same strength at earlier or later
times.
Maturation
• Some aspects of the orderly progression of
development are determined by maturation,
which genetically programmed and is
independent of specific environmental
conditions. An example is walking. This and
other early sensory and motor achievements
seem to be relatively unaffected by specific
practice.
• On the other hand, more general kinds of
experience, such as sensory deprivation and
sensory enrichment, seem to exert important
effects.
Cognitive development
• The study of cognitive development is
concerned with how the quality of
thought process improves with
experience and maturity. The central
theorist on this is Jean Piaget.
• In his theory, cognition develops as the
child applies assimilation and
accommodation to existing schemes,
and the do so by passing through the
same sequence of developmental
stages.
Sensory Motor Stage
• The first stage in this theory is the
Sensory Motor Stage, which lasts from
birth until about two years of age. Infants
are subjective and unaware of any
existence other than their own.
• The infant fails to distinguish between the
self and no self, (out of sight out of mind).
The infant can’t conceive of an object’s
existence once it is no longer immediately
perceptible.
Objects Permanence
•
Towards the end of this stage the infant
develops Objects Permanence, SensoryMotor Schemas and acquires Mental
Representations.
•
This is achieved through the acquisition
of new mental imagery that allows them
to imagine the existence of objects not
directly perceptible. The selves are
distinguished from reality, which
becomes separate from their own action.
Pre-operational stage
• The second stage is the pre-operational
stage, which lasts till about six or seven.
Children are capable of representational
thoughts but lack mental operation that order
and organize these thoughts. They cannot, for
example distinguish or recognize that another
person might view reality differently if situated
at a different point. (left & Right)
• Characteristic deficits at this stage includes
inability to conserve number and quantity,
(Lack of Conservation Ability), and
Egocentrism, an inability to take another
person’s perspective. Until the age of six the
child also fails the task of Class Inclusion
because of deficient logic at this stage.
Concrete operational thinking
• At approximately seven years of age, the
child enters the Concrete operational stage,
marked by the onset of logical thinking. This
enables the child to solve correctly all the
cognitive tasks that he or she fails at earlier
stage. They are no longer egocentric. They
are able to recognize that their view of reality
is one of many other views.
• However, the child can now solve problems
similar to that of class inclusion and
conservation, but they cannot think
abstractly.
The development of moral reasoning
• Based on the stage theory of cognitive
development, Lawrence Kohlberg has
developed a stage theory of moral
development and moral reasoning.
• This theory describes three progressive
levels of moral development, each level
includes two stages.
Pre-conventional morality
• Stage (I): Moral reasoning is governed
by punishment orientation-obey rule to
avoid punishment.
• Stage (II): Reward orientationconforms to obtain rewards.
Conventional level
• Stage (III): Good boy/good girl
orientation- conforms to avoid
disapproval.
• Stage(IV): Authority orientation: rigid
codes, rules, and duties define this
stage.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning
Level One:
Pre-conventional
Morality
Level Two:
Conventional
Morality
Level Three:
Post-Conventional
Morality
Stage 1: PunishmentObedience Orientation
Stage 2: Instrumental
Relativist Orientation
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl
Orientation
Stage 4: Law and Order
Orientation
Stage 5: Social Contract
Orientation
Stage 6: Universal Ethical
Principle Orientation
Psychosocial development
• Theories of psychosocial development
are represented by the work of Bowlby,
(1973) in his theory of attachment, and
the work of Erikson, (1976) in his
theory of psychosocial development.
Attachment
• Attachment is generally defined as the emotional
bond that develops between the infant and the
caregiver, providing infants with emotional security.
Many theories have been developed to explain how
attachment develops. The Behaviorist emphasizes
the Drive-Reduction and Operant conditioning
hypotheses. However, the hypothesis is weakened
by evidence indicating that infants may form
relationships not only with mothers who feeds
them, but also with many things that provide
feelings of warmth and security.
• However, an alternative theory by J. Bowlby
proposed continuity and expansion of attachment
development. This development is presented in four
stages or phases.
• Stage (I)- Birth to 6 Weeks: This is
called the indiscriminate social
responsiveness phase.
• The baby seems to respond to anyone
(human). Action represented in afterbirth
reflexes.
• Stage (II)- (6 weeks to 7 months):
This is called the discriminate social
responsiveness phase.
• Babies start to smile and to respond to
their parents, but they will not protest if
they were left alone.
• Stage (III)- (7 months to about 2 years):
This is called the specific attachment phase.
• Children start to recognize their mothers. They
are able to create a mental representation of the
mother (object permanence). Children of this
age may show separation anxiety.
• Stage (VI)- (From about 2 years old): This
the phase of forming reciprocal relationship.
• Now children begin to use language to express
their needs, to understand the feelings of others
(not egocentric after the preoperational stage),
and able to form mutual relationships.
Development of attachment
• However, the development of attachment, and
its disturbance or losses plays a significant role
in the formation of psychological well-beings
and maladjustment. Secured attachment is
associated with adaptive behavior, social
competence independence, and persistence in
problem solving.
• Insecure attachment may lead to mistrust,
avoidance behavior, craving for attention,
seeking constant approval, and other
emotional disturbances. Many of these issues
are covered and clarified in Eriksson’s theory of
psychosocial development that is summarized
below
Erikson theory of psychosocial
development
• In this theory, each stage of
development is dominated by a
particular developmental task reflecting
a conflict between a person’s needs and
societies need.
• That conflict must be resolved before
the person can proceed to the next
stage.
Stage (1): TRUST versus Mistrust:
Infancy (0-18 mos)
• This conflict dominates during the
first year of life. Here the concept of
TRUST resembles secured attachment.
Constant and reliable care that makes
the infant feel secured, and feels that
parents could be trusted.
• MISTRUST or insecure attachment may
lead to suspiciousness, frustration, and
difficulties in forming relationships.
Stage (2): AUTONOMY versus DOUBTS:
Toddlerhood (18-36 mos)
• Autonomy refers to the feeling of Self-Control
and self-determination. It is encouraged
when the child starts to exercise some control
over their action. Encouragement fosters
independence, self-sufficiency and selfesteem.
• If parents did not grant them autonomy,
children will feel incompetent, become doubt,
and will describe themselves (self-concept)
negatively. Restrictions promote selfdoubt and low self-esteem.
Stage (3): INITIATIVE versus GUILT:
Early Childhood (3-6 yrs)
• This occurs at the play stage (preschool). To initiate
constructive activities simply for the sake of being
active. Again, parental attitudes, encouraging. or
discouraging, can make children feel inadequate or
guilt if the child initiates activity that the adult
consider as shameful. Child initiates activities
and developments a sense of responsibility.
• This is the stage when also children start to develop
Gender Identity (The inner experience of being a
male or female), and Gender Role (a socially
prescribed patterns of behavior and attitudes for
male and females. Over-control stunts child's
spontaneity and sociability; promotes guilt and
fear.
Stage (4): INDUSTRY versus INFERIORITY:
Middle/Late Childhood (6-12 years)
• This occurs at school age. Children want to
learn the skill valued by adults and the
society in order to gain recognition. These
include various skills of adults. Success with
peers and parents leads to pride and
social competence.
• Successful will lead to the feelings of
competence and production, while receiving
negative response and critics will lead to
inferiority. Failure with peers and parents
leads to inferiority and inadequacy.
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual
Development
• Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
are, like other stage theories, completed in a
predetermined sequence and can result in
either successful completion or a healthy
personality or can result in failure, leading to
an unhealthy personality.
• During each stage, an unsuccessful
completion means that a child becomes
fixated on that particular erogenous zone and
either over– or under-indulges once he or she
becomes an adult.
Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months)
• During the oral stage, the child if focused on
oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too
little gratification can result in an Oral
Fixation or Oral Personality which is
evidenced by a preoccupation with oral
activities.
• This type of personality may have a stronger
tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or
bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these
individuals may become overly dependent
upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers.
On the other hand, they may also fight these
urges and develop pessimism and aggression
toward others.
Anal Stage (18 months to three years)
• The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is
on eliminating and retaining feces. Through
society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the
child has to learn to control anal stimulation.
In terms of personality, after effects of an
anal fixation during this stage can result in an
obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and
control (anal retentive).
• On the opposite end of the spectrum, they
may become messy and disorganized (anal
expulsive).
Phallic Stage (ages three to six)
• The pleasure zone switches to the genitals.
Freud believed that during this stage boy
develop unconscious sexual desires for their
mother. Because of this, he becomes rivals
with his father and sees him as competition
for the mother’s affection.
• During this time, boys also develop a fear
that their father will punish them for these
feelings, such as by castrating them. This
group of feelings is known as Oedipus
Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure
who accidentally killed his father and married
his mother).
Latency Stage (age six to puberty)
• It’s during this stage that sexual
urges remain repressed and
children interact and play mostly
with same sex peers.