Transcript 6–7 months
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Chapter 4
Physical Development
in Infancy and Toddlerhood
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Body Growth
Height increases 50%
by age 1, 75% by age 2
Weight doubles by 5
months, triples by 1 year
Individual and group
differences in size and
rate of growth
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Body Growth During
First Two Years
Figure 4.1
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Individual and Group
Differences in Growth
Group differences:
male/female
ethnic
Individual differences
Skeletal age: best
estimate of physical
maturity
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Growth Trends
Changes in Body Proportions
Cephalocaudal
“Head to tail”
Lower part of
body grows later
than the head
Proximodistal
“Near to far”
Extremities grow
later than head,
chest, and trunk
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Neurons and Their
Connective Fibers
Neurons
Nerve cells that store and
transmit information
Synapses
Tiny gaps where fibers from
different neurons come together
but do not touch
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that are released by
neurons and cross the synapse
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Methods for Measuring
Brain Functioning
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Event-related potentials (ERPs)
Functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI)
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Regions of the
Cerebral Cortex
Figure 4.4
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Prefrontal Cortex
Region of the cerebral cortex responsible
for thought, especially:
consciousness
inhibition of impulses
integration of information
use of memory, reasoning, planning, and
problem-solving strategies
Undergoes rapid growth in the preschool
and school years, and in adolescence
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Lateralization of the
Cerebral Cortex
Left Hemisphere
Verbal abilities
Positive emotion
Sequential, analytic
processing
Right Hemisphere
Spatial abilities
Negative emotion
Holistic, integrative
processing
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Brain Plasticity
At birth, hemispheres have already begun
to specialize
Highly plastic cerebral cortex has high
capacity for learning
If part of cortex is damaged, other areas
can take over its tasks
Older children and adults retain some
plasticity, but less than in young children
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Sensitive Periods in
Brain Development
Appropriate stimulation
is vital for brain growth
Experience-expectant
growth: depends on
ordinary experiences
Experience-dependent growth: additional
growth resulting from specific learning
experiences
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Changing States of Arousal
Sleep–wake pattern moves to night–day
schedule during first year
By age 2, total sleep time declines from 18
to 12 hours per day
Sleep patterns are
affected by social
environment,
cultural values
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Influences on Early Growth
Heredity
Nutrition:
breastfeeding
vs. bottle-feeding
risks of overfeeding
Malnutrition
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Benefits of Breastfeeding
Correct balance of fat
and protein
Ensures nutritional
completeness
Helps ensure healthy
physical growth
Protects against disease
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Malnutrition
Type
Consequences
Marasmus (diet low in
all essential nutrients)
Lasting physical damage;
learning and behavioral
effects; risk of death
Kwashiorkor (diet
very low in protein)
Lasting physical damage;
learning and behavioral
effects
Food insecurity
Effects on physical
growth; learning problems
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
The Steps of
Classical Conditioning
Figure 4.5
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer
Punishment
Increases probability
that behavior will
occur again by
Reduces probability
that behavior will
occur again by
presenting desirable
stimulus
removing unpleasant
stimulus
presenting unpleasant
stimulus
removing desirable
stimulus
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Using Habituation to Study
Infant Memory and Knowledge
Figure 4.6
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Imitation
Infants are born with
primitive ability to
imitate
Mirror neurons provide
biological explanation
Powerful means of
learning
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Motor Development
Sequence and Trends
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Gross-motor development:
crawling, standing, walking
Fine-motor development:
reaching, grasping
Sequence is fairly uniform
Large individual differences
in rate of motor progress
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Motor Skills as
Dynamic Systems
Mastery involves acquiring increasingly
complex systems of action with each skill
Each new skill is joint product of
central nervous system development
the body’s movement capacity
the child’s goals
environmental supports for the skill
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Cultural Variations in
Motor Development
Rates and patterns of
development affected by
early movement
opportunities
environmental
stimulation
child-rearing practices
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Milestones of
Reaching and Grasping
Prereaching
Ulnar grasp
Transferring object
from hand to hand
Pincer grasp
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Developments in Hearing
4–7 months
Sense of musical phrasing
6–7 months
Distinguishes musical tunes based
on variations in rhythmic patterns
6–8 months
“Screens out” sounds not
used in native language
6–12 months
Detects sound regularities
in human speech
7–9 months
Begins to divide speech stream
into wordlike units
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Visual Development
Supported by rapid
maturation of eyes and
visual centers in brain
Improvements:
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2 months: focus
4 months: color vision
6 months: acuity,
scanning, and tracking
6–7 months: depth
perception
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Milestones in
Depth Perception
3–4 weeks
Sensitivity to motion cues
2–3 months
Sensitivity to binocular depth cues
5–7 months
Sensitivity to pictorial depth cues
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
The
Visual
Cliff
Reveals link
between crawling
and depth
perception
Figure 4.11
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Milestones in
Pattern Perception
2
months
Becomes sensitive to contrast in complex
patterns; prefers them to simple patterns
2–3
months
Thoroughly explores a pattern’s features,
pausing briefly to look at each part
3–4
months
Detects pattern organization, integrating
pattern parts into organized whole
12
months
Detects familiar objects represented
by incomplete drawings
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Subjective Boundaries in
Visual Patterns
Figure 4.12
(Adapted from Rose, Jankowski, & Senior, 1997.)
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Milestones in Face Perception
Birth–
1 month
Prefers simple facelike pattern to other stimuli
2–4
months
Prefers complex facial pattern
to other complex stimulus arrangements
Prefers mother’s detailed facial
features to another woman’s
3 months
Distinguishes features of different faces
5–12
months
Perceives emotional expressions
on faces as meaningful wholes
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Early Face Perception
Figure 4.13
(From Cassia, Turati, & Simion, 2004; Johnson, 1999; Mondloch et al., 1999.)
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Milestones in
Intermodal Perception
Birth
Perceives amodal sensory properties
3–4
months
Matches faces with voices on basis of
lip–voice synchrony, emotional expression,
and speaker’s age and gender
4–6
months
Perceives and remembers unique
face–voice pairings of unfamiliar adults
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
Differentiation Theory
Infants
actively search for invariant features
of the environment
notice stable relationships among
features of a stimulus, detecting
patterns such as individual faces
gradually detect finer and finer
features
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition Laura E. Berk
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