6–7 months

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Transcript 6–7 months

Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Chapter 4
Physical Development
in Infancy and Toddlerhood
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Body Growth
 Height increases 50%
by age 1, 75% by age 2
 Weight doubles by 5
months, triples by 1 year
 Individual and group
differences in size and
rate of growth
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Body Growth During
First Two Years
Figure 4.1
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Individual and Group
Differences in Growth
 Group differences:
 male/female
 ethnic
 Individual differences
 Skeletal age: best
estimate of physical
maturity
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Growth Trends
Changes in Body Proportions
Cephalocaudal
 “Head to tail”
 Lower part of
body grows later
than the head
Proximodistal
 “Near to far”
 Extremities grow
later than head,
chest, and trunk
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Neurons and Their
Connective Fibers
Neurons
Nerve cells that store and
transmit information
Synapses
Tiny gaps where fibers from
different neurons come together
but do not touch
Neurotransmitters
Chemicals that are released by
neurons and cross the synapse
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Methods for Measuring
Brain Functioning
 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
 Event-related potentials (ERPs)
 Functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI)
 Positron emission tomography (PET)
 Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Regions of the
Cerebral Cortex
Figure 4.4
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Prefrontal Cortex
 Region of the cerebral cortex responsible
for thought, especially:




consciousness
inhibition of impulses
integration of information
use of memory, reasoning, planning, and
problem-solving strategies
 Undergoes rapid growth in the preschool
and school years, and in adolescence
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Lateralization of the
Cerebral Cortex
Left Hemisphere
 Verbal abilities
 Positive emotion
 Sequential, analytic
processing
Right Hemisphere
 Spatial abilities
 Negative emotion
 Holistic, integrative
processing
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Brain Plasticity
 At birth, hemispheres have already begun
to specialize
 Highly plastic cerebral cortex has high
capacity for learning
 If part of cortex is damaged, other areas
can take over its tasks
 Older children and adults retain some
plasticity, but less than in young children
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Sensitive Periods in
Brain Development
Appropriate stimulation
is vital for brain growth
 Experience-expectant
growth: depends on
ordinary experiences
 Experience-dependent growth: additional
growth resulting from specific learning
experiences
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Changing States of Arousal
 Sleep–wake pattern moves to night–day
schedule during first year
 By age 2, total sleep time declines from 18
to 12 hours per day
 Sleep patterns are
affected by social
environment,
cultural values
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Influences on Early Growth
 Heredity
 Nutrition:
 breastfeeding
vs. bottle-feeding
 risks of overfeeding
 Malnutrition
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Benefits of Breastfeeding
 Correct balance of fat
and protein
 Ensures nutritional
completeness
 Helps ensure healthy
physical growth
 Protects against disease
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Malnutrition
Type
Consequences
Marasmus (diet low in
all essential nutrients)
Lasting physical damage;
learning and behavioral
effects; risk of death
Kwashiorkor (diet
very low in protein)
Lasting physical damage;
learning and behavioral
effects
Food insecurity
Effects on physical
growth; learning problems
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
The Steps of
Classical Conditioning
Figure 4.5
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcer
Punishment
 Increases probability
that behavior will
occur again by
 Reduces probability
that behavior will
occur again by
 presenting desirable
stimulus
 removing unpleasant
stimulus
 presenting unpleasant
stimulus
 removing desirable
stimulus
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Using Habituation to Study
Infant Memory and Knowledge
Figure 4.6
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Imitation
 Infants are born with
primitive ability to
imitate
 Mirror neurons provide
biological explanation
 Powerful means of
learning
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Motor Development
Sequence and Trends
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 Gross-motor development:
crawling, standing, walking
 Fine-motor development:
reaching, grasping
 Sequence is fairly uniform
 Large individual differences
in rate of motor progress
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Motor Skills as
Dynamic Systems
 Mastery involves acquiring increasingly
complex systems of action with each skill
 Each new skill is joint product of




central nervous system development
the body’s movement capacity
the child’s goals
environmental supports for the skill
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Cultural Variations in
Motor Development
Rates and patterns of
development affected by
 early movement
opportunities
 environmental
stimulation
 child-rearing practices
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Milestones of
Reaching and Grasping
 Prereaching
 Ulnar grasp
 Transferring object
from hand to hand
 Pincer grasp
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Developments in Hearing
4–7 months
Sense of musical phrasing
6–7 months
Distinguishes musical tunes based
on variations in rhythmic patterns
6–8 months
“Screens out” sounds not
used in native language
6–12 months
Detects sound regularities
in human speech
7–9 months
Begins to divide speech stream
into wordlike units
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Visual Development
 Supported by rapid
maturation of eyes and
visual centers in brain
 Improvements:
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 2 months: focus
 4 months: color vision
 6 months: acuity,
scanning, and tracking
 6–7 months: depth
perception
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Milestones in
Depth Perception
3–4 weeks
Sensitivity to motion cues
2–3 months
Sensitivity to binocular depth cues
5–7 months
Sensitivity to pictorial depth cues
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
The
Visual
Cliff
Reveals link
between crawling
and depth
perception
Figure 4.11
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Milestones in
Pattern Perception
2
months
Becomes sensitive to contrast in complex
patterns; prefers them to simple patterns
2–3
months
Thoroughly explores a pattern’s features,
pausing briefly to look at each part
3–4
months
Detects pattern organization, integrating
pattern parts into organized whole
12
months
Detects familiar objects represented
by incomplete drawings
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Subjective Boundaries in
Visual Patterns
Figure 4.12
(Adapted from Rose, Jankowski, & Senior, 1997.)
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Milestones in Face Perception
Birth–
1 month
Prefers simple facelike pattern to other stimuli
2–4
months
Prefers complex facial pattern
to other complex stimulus arrangements
Prefers mother’s detailed facial
features to another woman’s
3 months
Distinguishes features of different faces
5–12
months
Perceives emotional expressions
on faces as meaningful wholes
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Early Face Perception
Figure 4.13
(From Cassia, Turati, & Simion, 2004; Johnson, 1999; Mondloch et al., 1999.)
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Milestones in
Intermodal Perception
Birth
Perceives amodal sensory properties
3–4
months
Matches faces with voices on basis of
lip–voice synchrony, emotional expression,
and speaker’s age and gender
4–6
months
Perceives and remembers unique
face–voice pairings of unfamiliar adults
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Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
Differentiation Theory
Infants
 actively search for invariant features
of the environment
 notice stable relationships among
features of a stimulus, detecting
patterns such as individual faces
 gradually detect finer and finer
features
Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk
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