Transcript Chapter 6: Motivating Effectively

Chapter 6
Motivating Effectively
The Relationship of Motivation
to Performance
Ability
Performance
Motivation
Situation
Fundamentals of Motivation
• Motivation comes from the Latin movere, “to move”
• Motivation requires:
– arousal to initiate behavior toward a goal
– direction to properly focus that behavior
– persistence to ultimately attain the goal
• The motivation “toolkit” contains:
– content or need theories to help us understand what people
want
– process theories to understand the motivation process
Some Theories Of Motivation
• Need (or Content) Theories
– Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
– Alderfer’s ERG Theory
– McClelland’s Manifest Needs
• Process Theories
–
–
–
–
Learning Theory
Goal Setting Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Understanding Employee Needs
• A need is something that people require.
• Satisfaction is the condition of need fulfillment
• Motivation is the attempt to satisfy a need.
The Need Satisfaction Process
(Figure 6-1)
Need
Deficiency
Search for
Potential NeedSatisfying
Goal
Goal
Attainment or
Frustration
Attempt to
Attain Goal
Perception of
Potential NeedSatisfying
Goal
Maslow’s Needs
• Physiological: the need for food, sleep, water, air, and
sex
• Security: the need for safety, family, stability, and
economic security
• Social or affiliation: the need to belong, to interact
with others, to have friends, and to love and be loved
• Esteem: the need for respect and recognition of others
• Self-actualization: the need to realize one’s potential,
to grow, to be creative, and to accomplish
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
SelfActualization
Satisfaction
Progression
Esteem
Social
Security
Physiological
Maslow’s Hypotheses
• Needs cluster into five sets
• Needs at the lowest unsatisfied level are most
salient
• A satisfied need is not a motivator
• There is a hierarchy of successive prepotency -once needs at a given level are satisfied, those at
the next higher level become most important
Evidence Concerning Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy
• People do have a variety of needs which vary in levels of
satisfaction and importance.
• For most needs, satisfaction is negatively related to performance.
• Satisfaction of lower level needs is generally necessary before
higher level needs become more important.
• Other than this, people don’t move up the hierarchy in any
predictable fashion.
• It appears that people have two or three distinct sets of needs, not
five.
• For higher level needs, satisfaction and importance are positively
related.
Alderfer’s Sets of Needs (ERG)
• Existence -- all forms of material and physical
desires
• Relatedness -- all needs involving relationships
with significant other persons
• Growth -- All needs involving a person making
creative and productive efforts on the self and the
environment
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Growth
Needs
Satisfaction
Progression
Relatedness
Needs
Existence
Needs
Frustration
Regression
Differences Between Maslow’s Need
Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Alderfer collapses Maslow’s five levels into three
• Alderfer says growth need strength is positively
related to growth need satisfaction
• Alderfer sees a hierarchy only in terms of
increasing abstractness
• Alderfer recognizes frustration regression as well
as satisfaction progression
McClelland’s Manifest Needs
• Need for Achievement: The need to do well no
matter what goal is pursued.
• Need for Affiliation: The desire to establish and
maintain friendly and warm relations with other
people.
• Need for Power: The desire to control other
people, to influence their behavior, and to be
responsible for them.
Characteristics of Individuals with
Strong Need for Achievement
• Desire to attain goals.
• Desire for personal responsibility.
• Desire for quick feedback on performance.
Implications of Need Theories
• Different people have different needs structures as well
as different needs that may be salient at a given time.
• While satisfaction occurs when needs are met,
motivation flows from lack of satisfaction.
• A reward may satisfy multiple needs.
• Needs appear to form two or three clusters.
Implications of Need Theories
(Continued)
• While most people first focus on existence needs
when those needs are not satisfied, it is not possible
to say which needs will next become most
important.
• Both satisfaction progression and frustration
regression are important.
• The top cluster of needs, sometimes called growth
needs, behave differently from others.
• It may be possible to develop people’s needs.
The Bottom Line: Need Theories
Assess
Employee
Needs
Identify the Most
Active Needs
of Employees
Evaluate
the Plan
Implement
Strategies
Develop Specific
Strategies to
Satisfy Active
Employee Needs
Learning Theories
• Learning is any relatively permanent change in
behavior produced by experience.
• Three types of learning:
– classical conditioning
– operant conditioning
– social learning
Classical Conditioning (Figure 6-4)
Step 1: Before Conditioning
Bell
and
No Response
Food
Response (Salivation)
Step 2: During Conditioning
Bell Followed by
Food
Response (Salivation)
Step 3: After Conditioning
Food
Response (Salivation)
Operant Conditioning (Figure 6-5)
Stimulus
Response
Consequence
Arranging Contingencies to Increase
Desired Behaviors (Figure 6-6)
Positive Reinforcement
Stimulus
Desired
Response
Positive
Consequence
Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement)
Stimulus
Desired
Response
Removal of
Noxious
Consequence
Desired
Response
Avoidance of
Noxious
Consequence
Avoidance Learning
Arranging Contingencies to Reduce
Undesired Behaviors (Figure 6-7)
Nonreinforcement (Extinction)
Stimulus
Undesired
Response
Positive
Consequence
Stimulus
Undesired
Response
Withholding
of Positive
Consequence
Stimulus
Desired
Response
Arranging Contingencies to Reduce
Undesired Behaviors (Fig. 6-7) Continued
Punishment
Stimulus
Undesired
Response
Stimulus
Undesired
Response
Noxious
Consequence
or Withholding
of Positive
Consequence
Problems with Use of Punishment
• Managers don’t like to punish others.
• Managers may feel constrained from using punishment
because of company policy or threat of reprisal.
• Punishment may engender resentment.
• Punishment may lead to revenge and retaliation.
• Punishment leads to adherence only when the person
administering the punishment is present or monitoring
• Others may misinterpret the reasons for punishment.
• Punishment may reduce the undesired behavior, but it
doesn’t directly teach a desired behavior.
Desired Properties of
Reinforcement Schedules
• Rapid Learning. The schedule should quickly teach
desired behaviors.
• High Response Rate. The schedule should have high
“bang for the buck” (that is, high levels of motivation at a
relatively low cost).
• High Response Stability. The schedule should encourage
engaging in desired behaviors on a regular basis.
• Low Extinction Rate. The schedule should ensure that,
once a behavior is learned, it will be maintained even if
reinforcement is temporarily stopped.
Reinforcement Schedules
• Continuous reinforcement: every instance of the target behavior
is reinforced
• Fixed-interval: a reinforcer is provided at fixed time intervals
(e.g., weekly paycheck)
• Variable-interval: a reinforcer is administered randomly around
some average interval (e.g., four pop quizzes during semester)
• Fixed-ratio: A reinforcer is provided after every n responses
(e.g., bonus for every ten units sold)
• Variable-ratio: A reinforcer is administered on average every n
responses (e.g., payoff on slot machine on average of once every
ten pulls of handle)
Comparing the Schedules of
Reinforcement (Figure 6-8)
Schedule of Reinforcement
Measure
Continuous Fixed
Ratio
Very Fast Fast
Learning
Rate
Response Very Low
Rate
Response Very High
Stability
Extinction Very Fast
Rate
Very
High
High
Fast
Variable
Ratio
Slow
Fixed
Interval
Very Slow
Very High Low
High
Very Low
Variable
Interval
Moderate
Moderate
Low to
Moderate
Very Slow Moderately Slow
Fast
Some Guidelines for Effectively Using
Learning Techniques in Organizations
• Don’t give the same reward to all.
• Recognize that failure to respond has reinforcing
consequences.
• Tell a person what behavior gets reinforced.
• Tell a person what he or she is doing wrong.
• Don’t punish in front of others.
• Make the consequences equal to the behavior.
• Reinforce behaviors as soon as possible.
The Bottom Line: Organizational
Behavior Modification (OBM)
Identify
Target
Behavior
Obtain
Baseline
Measure of
Target Behavior
Evaluate the Plan
(Assess Levels of
Target Behavior
Against Criterion)
Define Criterion
Level of Target
Behavior
Implement
the Plan
Identify
Appropriate
Reinforcer(s)
Identify an
Appropriate
Schedule of
Reinforcement
Functions of Goals
• Goals let employees know what they are expected to do.
• Goals relieve boredom.
• Reaching goals and getting positive feedback leads to
increased liking for the task and satisfaction with job
performance.
• Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers, supervisors,
and others.
• Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased selfconfidence, pride in achievement, and willingness to accept
future challenges.
Important Goal Characteristics
(Figure 6-9)
SPECIFIC GOALS
GOAL
ACCEPTANCE
DIFFICULT GOALS
MOTIVATION
FEEDBACK ON
PROGRESS
COMPETITION
PARTICIPATION
IN GOAL SETTING
GOAL
COMMITMENT
Management by Objectives
• Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique
in which the manager and employee work together to set
employee goals.
• MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including
setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and
feedback on performance.
• MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and
may encourage focus on easily-quantifiable goals.
• 68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity
gains.
The Bottom Line: Goal Setting
Theory
Use Employee
Participation to
Set Difficult and
Specific Goals
Ensure That the
Employee UnderStands the Goals
and is Committed
to Achieving Them
Link Appropriate
Consequences to
Goal Achievement
Provide
Management Support
(Including Feedback)
for Achievement of
Employee Goals
Assess Employee
Job Performance
Against Goals
Effort to Perform at
a Certain Level
Second-Order Outcome 1 (e.g.,
Approval of Supervisor)
with Valence V1
Second-Order Outcome 2 (e.g.,
Pay) with Valence V2
First-Order
Outcome
(e.g., Performance)
INSTRUMENTALITIES
EXPECTANCY
The Components of Expectancy
Theory (Figure 6-10)
Second-Order Outcome 3 (e.g.,
Esteem of Coworkers)
with Valence V3
Second-Order Outcome 4 (e.g.,
Promotion Opportunities)
with Valence V4
Second-Order Outcomes 5 to n
(e.g., Job Security, Better Work
Hours) with Valences V5 to Vn
The Linkage of Effort to a FirstOrder Outcome (Figure 6-11)
Role
Perceptions
Ability
First-Order
Outcome
Effort
Situational
Constraints
Implications of Expectancy Theory
• Recognize that three conditions are necessary for motivation to
perform.
• Assess perceptions of each of these conditions.
• Identify gaps between employee and management perceptions.
• Make sure you are giving employees what they want.
• Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy perceptions.
• Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality perceptions.
• If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work backwards.
The Bottom Line: Expectancy Theory
Identify Desired
Level of Employee
Motivation
Provide Training,
Direction, and
Opportunities to
Succeed to Enhance
Employee’s Belief that
He/She Can Achieve
High Job Performance
Promote Managerial
Support to Ensure
That Employee
Motivation Results in
High Job Performance
Promote Employee’s
Belief that Job
Performance Matters
by Using Appropriate
Reward Policies and
Practices
Use Organizational Reward
Systems and Job Design to
Link Positively Valued
Consequences to Employee
Job Performance in an
Equitable Manner
Why Be Fair? General Reasons
• When people experience a situation they feel is
not fair, they experience an unpleasant state of
tension.
• Some people try to be fair because they think
others will reward them for being fair.
• Behaving fairly may bolster a person’s selfesteem.
• Most people find it comforting to believe that life
is fair.
Why Be Fair? Employers’ Reasons
• To conform to business norms.
• To attract superior workers to their company and
weed out inferior workers.
• To motivate employees to produce.
• To develop trust.
Equity Theory Equation
Op
=
Ip
Oo
IO
Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)
•
•
•
•
Raise actual outcomes
Lower inputs
Perceptually distort inputs and/or outcomes
Perceptually distort comparison other’s inputs
and/or outcomes
• Leave the situation
• Act to change the comparison other’s inputs and/or
outcomes
• Change the comparison other
How People Choose From Among Ways
to Reduce Inequity
• People will first try to maximize valued outcomes.
• People will be reluctant to increase inputs that are difficult or
costly to change.
• People will resist actual or perceived changes in inputs or
outcomes that are central to their self-concept and self-esteem.
• People will be more resistant to changing perceptions of their
own inputs and outcomes than to changing perceptions of their
comparison other’s inputs and outcomes.
• People will leave the situation only when inequity is great and
other means of reducing it are not available.
• People will be reluctant to change their comparison others.
The Bottom Line: Equity Theory
Assess
Employee
Perceptions
of Equity in
Their Work
Situations
Identify
Employees
Who
Perceive
Inequities
Implement
Changes and
Communicate
Them to
Employees
Identify the
Basis for
Employee
Perceptions
of Inequity
Evaluate
Management
Policies and Practices
to Determine the
Validity of Employee
Perceptions
Identify Specific
Changes That Can
Be Made to Address
Employee Equity
Concerns
Rules for Determining Distributive
Fairness
• Contributions Rule: Give people outcomes in
proportion to their contributions (inputs).
• Needs Rule: Give people outcomes according to
their needs.
• Equality Rule: Give people outcomes on an equal
basis.
Factors Influencing Weights
Given to Distributive Fairness Rules
• Self-interest: People tend to assign higher weights
to rules that favor them.
• Conformity: People tend to conform to the rules
favored by others with whom they interact.
• Availability of Relevant Information: People are
reluctant to use a rule for which they don’t have
sufficient information.
Implications of Fairness Theories
• Fairness is absolutely critical to employees.
• Perceptions play a central role in determinations
of fairness.
• Fairness involves a comparison process.
• Both distributive fairness and procedural fairness
are important.
• Both overreward and underreward may cause
problems.
Implications of Fairness Theories
(Continued)
• Employees may consider inputs and outcomes that are
different than those we may expect.
• We need to find what people really value and what they
think they are contributing.
• Employees may find many ways to reduce perceived
inequity.
• While the exact means employees will use to reduce
inequity may be difficult to predict, almost all are harmful
to organizations and perhaps to the individuals
themselves.
The Case for Specialization
• The worker should be better able to perform the task and
should find it to be easier.
• Time is not lost moving from one piece of machinery to
another.
• The use of specialized machinery is encouraged.
• Replacement of employees who are absent or who leave the
organization is easier, since the job is simpler to learn.
• Especially when assembly lines are used, the worker may
adjust to the required pace and be drawn along by “traction.”
Potential Reactions to Specialized Jobs
(Figure 6-13)
Stimulus
Condition
Simplified,
Low Skill
Level, Short
Cycle Jobs
Perception
Monotony
Affective
Response
Boredom,
Job
Dissatisfaction
Behavioral
Response
Absenteeism,
Turnover,
Restriction of
Output
The Argyris Maturity Drive
Frustration Cycle (Figure 6-14)
Individual’s Drives
Toward Maturity,
Including Desires for:
• Activity
• Independence
•Diverse Behavior
•Deep Interests
•Long Time Perspective
•Superordinate Position
Frustration of
Maturity
Drives
Defense Mechanisms,
Including:
• Apathy
• Daydreaming
• Negativism
• Rate Restriction
• Absenteeism
Organization’s Rules, Formal Hierarchy,
Emphasis on Authority, and Specialized
Work, Resulting in Employee:
• Passivity
• Shallow Interests
• Dependence
• Short Time Perspective
• Few Ways of Behaving • Subordinate Position
The Job Characteristics Model
(Figure 6-15)
Core Job
Dimensions
Critical
Psychological
States
Personal and
Work Outcomes
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Experienced
Meaningfulness
of Work
Experienced
Responsibility for
Work Outcomes
Knowledge of
the Results of
Work Outcomes
Employee Growth-Need Strength
High Internal
Work Motivation
Autonomy
Feedback
High-Quality
Work Performance
High Satisfaction
with Work
Low Absenteeism
and Turnover
Implementing Principles for Job
Redesign (Figure 6-17)
Implementing
Principles
Combining
Tasks
Forming Natural
Work Units
Establishing Client
Relationships
Vertically Loading
the Job
Opening Feedback
Channels
Core Job
Characteristics
Skill Variety
Task Identity
Task Significance
Autonomy
Feedback from
the Task Itself
The Bottom Line: Job Characteristics Theory
Design Jobs to
Reflect High
Levels of the
Five Core
Job Dimensions
Evaluate the
Effectiveness of
the Job Redesign
Ensure That
Employees
Possess
High GrowthNeed Strength
Implement the
Job Redesign
Assess Employee
Perceptions of the
Five Core Dimensions
and Personal and
Work Outcomes
Identify Opportunities
to Redesign the Job
to Increase Core Job
Dimensions