Transcript Lecture 3

Lecture 3
Behavioral Theories of
Learning
Chapter 5
Main Contents
• Part1.What is Learning?
• Part2.What behavioral learning
theories have evolved？
• Pavlov: Classical Conditioning
• Thorndike’ theories of Learning
• Skinner: Operant Conditioning
• Principles of behavioral Learning
• Part3 Bandura: Social Learning
Theory ――Modeling and
Observational Learning
Part 1
What is leaning
Case Study P137
Critical and Creative Thinking：
What have students learnt in the class?
Have they learnt the behaviors the teacher
expected?
Why didn’t Ms Esteban accomplish her goal？
If you are Ms Esteban，what are you going to do？
Why？
•
Julia Esteban, first-grade teacher at Tanner Elementary School,
was trying to teach her students appropriate classroom behavior.
"Children," she said one day, "we are having a problem in this class
that I'd like to discuss with you. Whenever I ask a question, many
of you shout out your answers instead of raising your hand and
waiting to be called on. Can anyone tell me what you should do
when I ask the class a question?"
Rebecca's hand shot into the air. "I know, I know!" she said.
"Raise your hand and wait quietly!"
Ms. Esteban sighed to herself. She tried to ignore Rebecca, who
was doing exactly what she had just been told not to do, but
Rebecca was the only student with her hand up, and the longer
she delayed, the more frantically Rebecca waved her hand and
shouted her answer.
"All right, Rebecca. What are you supposed to do?"
"We're supposed to raise our hands and wait quietly for you to call
on us." "If you know the role, why were you shouting out your
answer before I called on you?" "I guess I forgot."
"All right. Can anyone remind the class of our rule about talking out
of turn?"
Four children raised their hands and shouted together..
"One at a time!" "Take turns!"
"Don't talk when someone else is talking!"
Ms. Esteban called for order. "You kids are going to drive me crazy!"
she said. "Didn't we just talk about how to raise your hands and
wait for me to call on you?"
"But Ms. Esteban," said Stephen without even raising his hand.
"You called on Rebecca and she wasn't quiet!"
Analysis：p138
Children are excellent learners.
What they learn, however, may not always be what
we intend to teach. Ms. Esteban is trying to teach
students how to behave in class, but by paying
attention to Rebecca’s outburst, she is actually
teaching them the opposite of what she intends.
Rebecca craves (expects) her teacher's attention,
so being called on (even in an exasperated (angry)
tone of voice) rewards her for calling out her
answer. Not only does Ms. Esteban's response
increase the chances that Rebecca will call out
answers again, but Rebecca now serves as a model
for her classmates' own calling out. What
Ms.Esteban says is less important than her actual
response to her students' behaviors.
What is learning?
• Brainstorm:
• When we hear the word “learning”
most of us think of studying and
school. But learning is not limit to
School.
• We learning everyday of our lives.
• Given examples of what are learning
and what are not learning?
A Definition of Learning
Learning is usually defined as
a change in an individual caused
by experience
Understanding:
• In the broadest sense, learning
occurs when experience causes a
relatively permanent change in an
individual’s knowledge or behavior.
• Changes simply caused by maturation,
such as growing taller or turning gray,
do not qualify as learning.
• Learning takes place in many ways.
Learning takes place in many ways.
• Video
• it is intentional, or it is unintentional
•
•
•
It happens in human beings or animals
It happens in school or out of school
learning can be good or can be worse
Learning Theories：
• There are two main theories: Behavioral
learning theories and cognitive learning
theories.
• Behavioral learning theories Behavioral
learning theories are explanations of
learning that emphasize observable changes
in behavior.
• (Social learning theories focus on the effects
of thought on action and action on thought.)
• Cognitive learning theories are explanations
of learning that focus on mental processes.
• There are two branches of cognitive learning
theories: cognitive structure learning theory
（认知结构学习论），information－processing
theory of learning（信息加工学习论）。
Part2
What behavioral learning
theories have evolved？
Early Explanations of Learning
1. One of the earliest explanations
of learning come from Aristotle
(384-322B.C.)
2. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning was
discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a
Russian Physiologist, in the late
1800s and early 1900s
• Aristole – (384-322BC)
– Knowledge acquired
through experience.
• Four Laws of
Association
–
–
–
–
Law
Law
Law
Law
of
of
of
of
similarity(相似)
Contrast（对比）
Contiguity（接近）
Frequency（频率）
Some important concepts:
• Unconditioned Stimulus
A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular
response.
• Unconditioned Response
A behavior that is prompted atomically by a stimulus.
• Neutral Stimuli
Stimuli that have no effect on a particular response.
• Conditioned Stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular
response after having been paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
• Classical Conditioning
The process of repeatedly associating a previously
neutral(中性的) stimulus with an unconditioned
stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response.
Summary（小结）
• 1. Pavlov's emphasis on observation and
careful measurement and his systematic
exploration of several aspects of learning
helped to advance the scientific study of
learning.
• 2. Pavlov also left other behavioral theorists
with significant mysteries, such as the
process by which neutral stimuli take on
meaning.
• 3.Although his findings have few
applications to classroom instruction, they
can help a teacher understand many
situations, such as when a child's anxiety
about being among strangers gradually
develops into a debilitating fear of coming
to school.
Learning Guide for next
section
• Thorndike, Skinner
Experiments
Conclusions
Explanations
Applications in Education
2. Thorndike’s theory of learning
• American psychologist and
educator, born in
Williamsburg, Massachusetts,
and educated at Wesleyan,
Harvard, and Columbia
universities. Thorndike joined
the psychology faculty at
Teachers College of Columbia
University in 1899, where he
served as adjunct professor
of educational psychology
from 1901 to 1904 and as
professor of psychology from
1904 until his retirement in
1940. From 1922 to 1940 he
also was director of the
psychology division of the
Institute of Educational
Research at Teachers College.
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
• Edward Thorndike, an American psychologist played
major roles in developing learning theories. His early
work involved cat’s that he placed in problem boxes.
• By using trial-and-error experiments with animals,
Thorndike formulated his so-called law of effect—the more
satisfying the result of a particular action, the better that
action is learned—and applied it to the development of
special teaching techniques for use in the classroom. He is
particularly known for his construction of various
intelligence and aptitude tests and for his repudiation of the
belief that such primarily intellectual subjects as languages
and mathematics discipline the mind.
Edward Thorndike played
major roles in developing learning theories. His early
work involved cat’s that he placed in problem boxes.
Experiments description
• Thorndike’s early work involved cats that
he placed in problem boxes. To escape
from the box and reach food outside, the
cats had to pull out a bolt(门闩) or perform
some other task; they had to act on their
environment. During the frenzied（狂乱的，
激怒的） movements that followed the
closing of the box, the cats eventually
made the correct movement to escape,
usually by accident. After repeating the
process many times, the cats learned to
make the correct response almost
immediately
Thorndike's learning theory
can be summarized as follows:
• 1
– The law of effect(效果律) - responses followed
by a reward will strengthen the response
– The law of readiness （准备律）- chaining a
discrete responses to achieve a goal
– The law of exercise （练习律）- associations are
strengthened with practice, weakened without
it, and can be diminished with failure or
punishment.
For these experiments
•2
• Thorndike explained what was
learning . He viewed that learning
was the linkage between stimulus
and response. The learning occurred
when stimuli prompt response
(stimuli-response theory ,S-R
theory).
3. Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
• American psychologist
B. F.Skinner became
famous for his pioneering
research on learning and
behavior. During his 60year career, Skinner
discovered important
principles of operant
conditioning, a type of
learning that involves
reinforcement and
punishment. A strict
behaviorist, Skinner
believed that operant
conditioning could explain
even the most complex of
human behaviors.
Skinner’s experiments
• Skinner is famous for his development and use of
a device(装置) that is commonly referred to as
the Skinner box. Skinner boxes contain a very
simple apparatus（设备，仪器） for studying the
behavior of animals, usually rats and pigeons.
• A Skinner box for rats would consist of a bar that
is easy for the rat to press, a food dispenser（发
配者） that could give the rat a pellet（小球） of
food, and a water dispenser. The rat could not
see or hear anything outside of the box, so all
stimuli would be controlled by the experimenter.
Based on Skinner’s experiment
• He established the operant conditioning.
• Operant Conditioning is the use of
pleasant or unpleasant consequences
to control the occurrence of behavior.
Creative Thinking and Discuss in groups
• Compare the contributions of
Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner ‘s
view of learning. What are the
difference among them?
CONSEQUENCE
Behaviors
Reinforcer
EFFECT
Strengthened or repeated behavior
4. Principles of
behavioral Learning
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
consequences（结果）,
reinforcers（强化物）,
punishers（惩罚）,
immediacy of consequences（结果的及时性）,
shaping(塑造),
extinction（消退）,
schedules of reinforcement（强化的程序）,
maintenance（维持）,
and the role of antecedents(先行事件的作用).
consequences（结果）
• The role of Consequences
behavior changes according to its
immediate consequences.
Pleasurable consequences
strengthen behavior; unpleasant
consequences weaken it.
Types of Consequences
Pleasurable consequences and
Unpleasant consequences
reinforcers（强化物）
• positive reinforer and negative
reinforcer
• Primary reinforcers and
secondary reinforcers
• Intrinsic（内部的） and Extrinsic
（外部的） reinforcers
Ways of reinforcer
• general principle of reinforcer
• Ways
1. Self-reinforcement
2. Praise
3. Attention
4. Grades and recognition
5. Home-based reinforcement
6. Activity reinforcers.
7. Tangible(切实的，物质的) reinforcers
Theory into practice
1. Application of reinforcers-----Premack Principle
2.Classroom uses of reinforcement
(1)Decide what behaviors you want from students, and
reinforce these behaviors when they occur.
(2)Tell students what behaviors you want; when they exhibit
the desired behaviors and you reinforce them, tell them
why.
(3) Reinforce appropriate behavior as soon as possible after
it occurs.
(4)to use the least elaborate(精心制作的，) or tangible
（切实的） reinforcer
Punishers
• Unpleasant Consequences that
weaken behavior are called
punishers.
• (Thinking: if an unpleasant
consequence can’t weeken
behavior ,is it a punisher?)
Punishers
• Punishment can take two primary forms:
• PRESENTATION PUNISHMENT（呈现惩罚）
•
• REMOVAL PUNISHMENT(取消性惩罚)
Immediacy of Consequences
• Consequences that follow
behaviors closely in time affect
behavior far more than delayed
consequences do.
Shaping
• Shaping is an important tool in
classroom instruction 。
What is Shaping？？？
Case study
• Example on page151 ，4thP
• we want students to be able to write paragraphs with a
topic sentence, three supporting details, and a concluding
sentence. This task has many parts: being able to
recognize and then produce topic sentences, supporting
details, and concluding sentences; being able to write
complete sentences using capitalization, punctuation, and
grammar correctly; and being able to spell. If a teacher
taught a lesson on all these skills, asked students to write
paragraphs, and then scored them on content, grammar,
punctuation, and spelling, most students would fail and
would probably learn little from the exercise. Instead, the
teacher might teach the skills step by step, gradually
shaping the final skill. Students might be taught how to
write first topic sentences, then supporting details, then
concluding sentences. Early on, they might be held
responsible only for paragraph content. Later, the
requirement for reinforcement might be increased to
include grammar and punctuation. Finally, spelling might
be added as a criterion for success. At each stage, students
would have a good chance to be reinforced, because the
criterion for reinforcement would be within their grasp.
The principle here is that students should be reinforced for
behaviors that are within their current capabilities but that
also stretch them toward new skills.
Shaping(塑造)
When teachers guide students
toward goals by reinforcing the
many steps that lead to success,
they are using a technique called
shaping.
Extinction
• The weakening and eventual
elimination of a learned behavior
as reinforcement is withdrawn is
called extinction.
(give some examples from your
experience).
Schedules of
Reinforcement
• P155
• This term refers to the frequency with
which reinforcers are given, the
amount of time that elapses(流逝，消逝)
between opportunities for
reinforcement, and the predictability
of reinforcement（强化程序是指给予强化物
的频数、强化物之间的时间间隔以及强化的预期
性等）.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Continuous
Reinforcement
Intermittent
Reinforcement
(Time)
Fixedinterval
(Number)
Variableinterval
Fixed-ratio
Variableratio
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous Reinforcement Schedule: Presenting a
reinforce after every appropriate response.
• Intermittent Reinforcement Schedule: Presenting a
reinforcer after some but not all responses.
•
Interval Schedule: Reinforcement based on the
length of time between refnforcers
•
Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement based on the
number responses between reinforcers
•
Fixed-interval Schedule: Reinforcement Schedule in
which desired behavior is rewarded following a
constant amount of time
•
Variable-interval Schedule: Reinforcement
Schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded
following an unpredictable amount of time.
•
Fixed- Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement Schedule in
which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed
number of behaviors.
• Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement schedule in
which desired behavior is rewarded following an
unpredictable number of behaviors
Self learning
SCHEDULE
DEFINITION
EXAMPLE
RESPONSE PATTERN
Maintenance(维持)
• Maintenance means the continuation
of behavior.
Antecedents （先行事件）
and Behavior Change
We have seen that the
consequences of behavior
strongly influence behavior. Yet
it is not only what follows a
behavior that has influence.
The stimuli that precede a
behavior also play an important
role.
Antecedents （先行事件）
and Behavior Change
• CUEING
Cueing, by definition, is the act of
providing an antecedent stimulus
just before a particular behavior
is to take place.
The cues must be
discriminative .So we can provide
an additional cue called prompt .
Part3
Bandura:
Social Learning Theory --Modeling and Observational
Learning
Main contents of Social Learning Theory
• Modeling and Observational
Learning(观察学习的模式)
• VICARIOUS LEARNING（替代性学习）
• SELF REGULATED LEARNING（自
我调节学习
• SELF-REINFORCEMENT(自我强化)
The experiments
• One of the classic experiments in social
learning theory is a study done by Bandura
(1965). Children were shown one of three
films. In all three, an adult modeled
aggressive behavior. In one film the model
was severely punished. In another the
model was praised and given treats（款待）.
In a third the model was given no
consequences. After viewing one of the
films, the children were observed playing
with toys. The children who had seen the
model punished engaged in significantly
fewer aggressive acts in their own play than
did the children who had seen the model
rewarded or had viewed the noconsequences film.
Modeling and
Observational Learning
• Brain storming：
• What kinds of behaviors are
learnt without the effects of
consequences?
four phases of
observational learning
• Attentional Phase
• Retention Phase
• Reproduction Phase
• motivational phase
VICARIOUS LEARNING
（替代性学习）
• The experiments
One of the classic experiments in social
learning theory is a study done by Bandura
(1965). Children were shown one of three
films. In all three, an adult modeled
aggressive behavior. In one film the model
was severely punished. In another the
model was praised and given treats（款待）
In a third the model was given no
consequences. After viewing one of the
films, the children were observed playing
with toys. The children who had seen the
model punished engaged in significantly
fewer aggressive acts in their own play than
did the children who had seen the model
rewarded or had viewed the
noconsequences film.
SELF REGULATED
LEARNING（自我调节学习）
• Meichenbaum's Model of SelfRegulated Learning(自我调节学习模
式)
Meichenbaum's Model of Self-Regulated
Learning(自我调节学习模式)
• 1. An adult model performs a task while
talking to self out loud (cognitive modeling).
• 2. The child performs the same task under
the direction of the model's instructions
(overt（明显的，公开的）, external guidance).
• 3. The child performs the task while
instructing self aloud (overt self-guidance).
• 4. The child whispers the instructions to
self as he or she goes through the task
(faded, overt self-guidance).
• 5. The child performs the task while guiding
his or her performance via private speech
(covert self-instruction). (p. 32)
Example of Self-Regulated Learning
TASK COMPLETION FORM
[] Located material on Martin Luther King Jr.
in the library
[] Read and took notes on material
[] Wrote first draft of report
[] Checked draft for sense
[] Checked draft for mechanics:
[] Spelling
[] Grammar
[] Punctuation
[] Composed typed or neatly handwritten final
draft
Compare to Vygotskian approach
• Both approaches emphasize
modeling private speech and
gradually moving from teachercontrolled to student-controlled
behaviors
Advantage of this strategy:
• breaking down a complex task into
smaller pieces encourages students to
feel that they are making progress
toward their larger goal.
• checking off each step allows them to
give themselves a mental pat on the
back that reinforces their efforts
(Manning & Payne, 1996).
SELF-REINFORCEMENT(自我强化)
• P120
• Information about one’s own
behavior has often been found to
change behavior, even when that
information is self-provided.
Strengths and Limitations of
Behavioral Learning Theories
• The basic principles of behavioral learning theories are as
firmly established as any in psychology and have been
demonstrated under many different conditions. These
principles are useful for explaining much of human
behavior; they are even more useful in changing behavior.
• It is important to recognize, however, that behavioral
learning theories are limited in scope(范围). With the
exception of social learning theorists, behavioral learning
theorists focus almost exclusively on observable behavior
• Less visible learning processes, such as concept formation,
learning from text, problem solving, and thinking, are
difficult to observe directly and have therefore been
studied less often by behavioral learning theorists. These
processes fall more into the domain of cognitive learning,
• Social learning theory, which is a direct outgrowth of
behavioral learning theories, helps to bridge the gap
between the behavioral and cognitive perspectives.
The end of Chapter 3