Transcript IMS Learning Design

Learning Design
Birgit Mayer
17th May
Introduction
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How can we help people to learn?
What support do people need in order to learn?
How can we assess and communicate the results
of a learning process?
How can we make learning and support as
effective, efficient, attractive, and accessible as
possible for everyone involved in the process?
Introduction
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No straigthforward answer
Depending on specific situation, solution X will
work best for person Y
Learning can be improved by making conditions
explicit and by using this knowledge to design new
learning events
 Learning design: Conceptual model for the
description of teaching and learning processes
Learning design
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Related to the nature of knowledge, learning, motivation,
social exchange
Learning design knowledge: captured by
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Instructional design approaches: theories (set of design principles)
Identifying best practice in teaching and learning
Pedagogical design patterns (between theory and best practice)
Teachers are influenced by these aspects w.r.t. their
believes about good teaching and learning
Learning Design – Definitions
(Koper, 2005)
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Learning design
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Application of learning design knowledge when developing a Unit of
Learning
Unit of Learning (UoL)
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Lesson, course, curriculum, learning event, etc.
Quality of UoL depends on quality of learning design
Every UoL has an underlying learning design that is more generic
than the UoL itself
Learning Design - Definitions
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Learning designer
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Teacher, coach, mentor, curriculum developers etc.
Task is to design a UoL that meets a set of learning objectives
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How does the designer proceed?
What steps must be taken to develop e.g. an effective a course?
Best solution depends on the context of the e.g. course
Requires to make use of design knowledge, i.e. set of rules that
can be applied to the design problem
Learning Design Rules: What are they?
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Koper (2005)
Based on Reigeluth (1999)
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Learning design knowledge = Instructional Design Theory
Guidance on how to help people to learn and develop, including
cognitive, emotional, social, physical, and spiritual aspects
Learning Design Rules: What are they?
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Characteristics of Instructional Design Theory
(Reigeluth, 1999)
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Orientation towards design, focusing on the means to attain goals for
learning and development (rather pre-scriptive than descriptive, but there is
a bridge to the descriptive science of Learning Theory)
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Identification of methods of instruction, which are ways to support and
facilitate instruction, and the situations in which those methods should and
should not be used (situational, not universal, one method works best for
situation X, another for situation Y)
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The methods are probabilistic rather than deterministic (increasing the
chances of attaining the goals rather than ensuring attainment of the goals)
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Methods, learning outcome etc. have underlying values (e.g. people prefer
certain methods above others)
Learning Design Rules: What are they?
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Prescriptive, probabilistic, not value-free rules
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If learning situation S (and value V)
then use learning design method M (with probability P)
Learning Design Rules:
Learning Situation
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Contains factors that are of importance when selecting
adequate learning design methods
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Requirements to meet
Descriptors of situation in which a new learning design method is
applied
Situational factors
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Learning outcomes
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Level of effectiveness, efficiency, attractiveness, accessibility of
learning design method
Learning conditions
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Characteristics of learning objectives, learners, setting, media
Learning Design Rules:
Situational Factors: Learning Outcomes
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Effectiveness
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Efficiency
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Labour intensity and cost of method (for learners to attain objective,
for teachers to support learners)
Attractiveness
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How well learning objectives are met by learnig design method (e.g.
number of students who passes a test)
How much activities appeal to learners and teachers
Accessibility
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How easily learners and teachers can access learning facilities
(location dependent?, time constraints?, adaptation?)
Learning Design Rules:
Situational Factors: Learning Conditions
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Learning objectives
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Learners
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Pre-knowledge, motivation, situational circumstances
Setting
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Knowledge, skills, attitudes, competences
Individual and/or group work, at school and/or home
Media
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(A)synchronous, linear/interactive, media types
Learning Design Rules:
Learning Design Methods
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Describes teaching/learning process
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Process undertaken by persons interacting within a learning
environment
Definition of roles, activities, activity structures, interaction,
learning resources etc.
Derivation of Learning Design Rules
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From instructional design theory (prescriptions)
From best practice (examples)
From patterns in best practice (patterns)
Derivation of Learning Design Rules: From
Instructional Design Theories
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E.g. based on the knowledgebase of learning
research/theory
3 Main directions
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Behaviourism
Cognitivsm
Constructivism
Behaviourism
Basic Principles
Goals of Instruction Models
Instructional Models
Emphasis is on observable and
measurable behaviors
Learning happens when a correct
response is demonstrated
following the presentation of a
specific environmental stimulus
“Black box" metaphor
Emphasis is on relationships
between environmental
variables and behavior
Instruction utilizes
consequences and
reinforcement of learned
behaviors
Communicate or transfer
behaviors representing knowledge
and skills to the learner (does not
consider mental processing)
Computer-Based Instruction
Contract Learning
Individualized Instruction
Programmed Instruction
Information Processing Model
Embedded theories:e.g.
Pavlov's Classical Conditioning
Skinner's Operant Conditioning
Stimulus-Response Theory
Thorndike's Laws and
Connectionism
Information Processing
Learner acquires skills of
discrimination (recalling facts),
generalization (defining and
illustrating concepts), association
(applying explanations), and
chaining (automatically performing
a specified procedure)
Instruction is to elicit the
desired response from the
learner who is presented with a
target stimulus
Implication for instruction
Learner must know how to execute
the proper response as well as the
conditions under which the
response is made
Behavioral objectives
Dick & Carey instructional design
model
Performance-based assessment
Systems models
Dick&Carey Instructional Design Model
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Predictable link between a stimulus and the response it produces in a learner
It is the designer's responsibility
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to determine the sub-skills a student must master in order for the behavior to be
learned and
to choose the stimulus and strategy for instruction in order to assemble the sub-skills
The basic steps
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Determine instructional goal
Analyse the instructional goal
Analyse learners and contexts
Write performance objectives
Develop assessment instruments
Develop instructional strategy
Develop and select instructional materials
Design and conduct formative evaluation
Revise instruction
Summative evaluation
Programmed Instruction
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Based on Skinner's "operant conditioning“ (behavior can be conditionned by
rewarding the right stimulus-response patterns)
Method of presenting new subject matters to students in a graded sequence of
controlled steps
Students work through the programmed material by themselves at their own
speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an
examination question or filling in a diagram
They are then immediately shown the correct answer or given additional
information
Computers and other types of teaching machines are often used to present the
material, although books may also be used
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Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur
Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be
reinforced ("shaping")
Reinforcements will generalise across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalisation")
producing secondary conditioning
Cognitivism
Basic Principles
Goals of Instruction Models
Instructional Models
Learning is a change of knowledge state
Knowledge acquisition is described as a
mental activity that entails internal
coding and structuring by the learner
Communicate or transfer
knowledge in the most efficient,
effective manner
Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation
Merrill’s Component Display Model
Learner is viewed as an active
participant in the learning process
Emphasis is on the building blocks of
knowledge
Focus of instruction is to create
learning or change by
encouraging the learner to use
appropriate learning strategies
Emphasis on structuring, organizing
and sequencing information to
facilitate optimal processing
Focus is on how learners remember,
retrieve, and store information in
memory
Examines the mental structure and
processes related to learning
Learning is viewed as an active process
that occurs within the learner and which
can be influenced by the learner
Embedded theories: e.g.
Component Display Theory (Merril)
Dual Coding Theory (Paivio)
Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
Gestalt Theory (Wertheimer)
Mental Models (Norman)
Subsumption Theory (Ausubel)
Implication for instruction
Learning results when information
is stored in memory in an
organized, meaningful way
Teachers/designers are
responsible for assisting learners
in organizing information in an
optimal way so that it can be
readily assimilated
Cognitive objectives
Learning strategies
Learning taxonomies
Prerequisite skills
Task analysis
Merrill's Component Display Model
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Classifies learning along two dimensions
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Primary presentation forms (expository/inquisitory x generality/instance
learning strategies)
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Content (facts, concepts, procedures, principles)
Performance (remembering, using, generalities)
Rules (expository presentation of a generality)
Examples (expository presentation of instances)
Recall (inquisitory generality)
Practice (inquisitory instance)
Secondary presentation forms:
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Prerequisites
Objectives
Helps
Mnemonics
Feedback
Elaboration Theory (Reigeluth)
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Instruction should be organised in increasing order of
complexity
Learner needs to develop a meaningful context into which
subsequent ideas and skills can be assimilated
7 Major strategy components:
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Elaborative sequence (simple – complex)
Learning prerequisite sequences
Summary (e.g. at lesson, unit level)
Synthesis (integrate content elements into a meaningful whole and
assimilate them into prior knowledge)
Analogies (relate the content to learners' prior knowledge)
Cognitive strategy activators (e.g. pictures, diagrams, mnemonics)
Learner control
Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and
Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
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Classifying learning objectives: Verb + Noun
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Two-dimensional
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Verb: Cognitive process dimension (underlying continuum is
complexity)
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Remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate, create
Noun: Knowledge dimension (continuum: concrete – abstract)
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Factual, conceptual, procedural, metacognitive
Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and
Assessing (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)
Knowledge
Dimension
Factual
Conceptual
Procedural
Metacognitive
Cognitive Process Dimension
Remember
Understand
Apply
Analyse
Evaluate
Create
Discovery Learning
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Inquiry-based learning method
Problem solving situations where the learner draws on his own
experience and prior knowledge to discover the truths that are to be
learned
It is a personal, internal, constructivist learning environment
"Rich" environments: (Perkins) Combination of five basic resources:
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Information banks - allow access to required information (e.g., books,
encyclopedias, videos)
Symbols pads - supports learners' short-term memory (e.g., notebooks,
laptops)
Construction kits - facilitates manipulation and building (e.g., Lego)
Phenomenaria - allows exploration (e.g., terrarium, computer simulation)
Task managers - gives help and feedback when tasks are completed (e.g.,
teachers, electronic tutors)
Constructivism
Basic Principles
Goals of Instruction Models
Instructional Models
Learners build personal
interpretation of the world based
on experiences and interactions
Knowledge is embedded in the
context in which it is used
(authentic tasks in meaningful
realistic settings)
There are many ways (multiple
perspectives) of structuring the
world and its entities
Meaning is imposed by the
individual rather than existing in
the world
Build personal interpretations of
the world based on individual
experiences and interactions
Learning is an active process of
constructing rather than
acquiring knowledge
Instruction is a process of
supporting knowledge
construction rather than
communicating knowledge
Do not structure learning for the
task, but engage learner in the
actual use of the tools in real world
situations
Learning activities should be
authentic and should center
around the “problematic” or
“puzzlement” as perceived by the
learner
The focus is on the process not the
product
Role of teacher is a mentor not a
“teller”
Encourage reflective thinking,
higher order learning skills
Action Learning
Authentic Learning
Case-Based Learning
Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive Flexibility Hypertext
Collaborative Learning
Communities of Practice
Computer-Supported Intentional
Learning Environments (CSILEs)
Discovery Learning
Distributed Learning
Inquiry-Based Learning
Microworlds/Simulations
Embedded theories:e.g.
Cognitive Flexibility Theory (Spiro et al.)
Generative Learning Theory (Wittrock)
Situated Cognition (Clancey, Lave)
Social-Cultural Learning (Vygotsky)
Implication for Instruction
Authentic assessment methods
Learning through exploration
Problem-oriented activities
"Rich" environments
Visual formats and mental models
Learning Theories:
General Practice of Instructional Design
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Designing from a behaviorist/cognitivist approach
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Designer analyses the learning situation and sets a goal, objective,
decides what is important for the learner to know and attempts to
transfer that knowledge to the learner
Individual tasks are broken down, learning objectives are developed
Evaluation consists of determining whether the criteria for the
objectives have been met (e.g. perfomance tests)
Learning Theories:
General Practice of Instructional Design
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Designing from a constructivist approach:
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Designer produces a product that is much more facilitative than
prescriptive
The content is not prespecified, direction is determined by the
learner and assessment is much more subjective because it does
not depend on specific quantitative criteria, but rather the process
and self-evaluation of the learner
The standard pencil-and-paper tests of mastery learning are not
used in constructive design; instead, evaluation is based on notes,
early drafts, final products and journals
First Principles of Instruction
Merril (2002)
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Identified 5 principles (basic methods) that can be found in
a variety of design/instructional theories and models
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Apply regardless of instructional program or practice described by a
given theory or model
Learning is promoted when
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Learners are engaged in solving real-world problems
Existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge
New knowledge is demonstrated to the learner
New knowledge is applied by the learner
New knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world
Derivation of Learning Design Rules:
From Best Practice
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Using learning design method of specific example courses
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Awareness of
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Set up database of accessible and usable courses or course components
(e.g. Merlot 2004)
Set up database of learning design methods (e.g. frameworks, lesson plans
as guidelines for designing new courses)
Situational characteristics
Indication of quality (e.g. probability of success, peer review, expert review,
quality ratings of users)
Chance of finding a successful example that matches with own needs is
not very high due to conditions
Internet offers option to share examples, lesson plans with others (e.g.
overview of databases by Van Es, 2004)
Derivation of Learning Design Rules:
From Patterns in Best Practice
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Analysis of patterns in collections of comparable best
practices
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Reflect experience of experts
Concise description
Solve recurrent problems in a learning design
Can be used as templates for designing UoL
Two ways of creating patterns:
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Analysing common structures in a set of learning design methods
(inductive way)
Meetings with experienced learning designers to identify recurrent
problems and generic models for solutions (deductive way, more
popular)
Summary
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Learning designer uses learning design knowledge to
create a learning design method for a course
Learning design knowledge consists of series of rules
taking the “if situation, then method” format
Rules are derived from theory, best practices, patterns
Implication for eLearning Settings
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To enable learning designers to search for, share and re-use learning
design methods, there is the need of a standard notation
Requirements
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Comprehensive
Support of blended learning, pure online learning
Pedagogical flexible
Personalisation/Adaptivity: Description of conditions
Identification, isolation, de-contextualisation, exchange, re-use of parts of
the learning design (e.g. patterns)
Standardised, in line with other existing standards
Formal language in order to be processed automatically
Enabling a learning design to be abstracted so that repeated execution in
different settings and with different persons becomes possible
 IMS Learning Design Specification
IMS Learning Design Specification
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Digital format for encoding, transporting, and playing
learning designs
A model for describing the structure of tasks and activities,
their assignment to roles, and the workflow of a Unit of
Learning as a ‘Learning Design’
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“Who does what, when, using which materials/services to attain
which learning objectives”
A platform-independent notational convention to allow
sharing and re-using of these designs
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The structure of the learning scenario is separated from the learning
materials and services
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Materials can be reused within different scenarios
Scenarios can be reused and new materials added
IMS Learning Design Specification
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Core concepts
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Regardless of the pedagogical/instructional approach, a
Person gets a Role in the teaching-learning process (e.g. learner or
teacher)
In this Role he or she works towards certain Outcomes by
performing more or less structured Learning and/or Support
Activities within an Environment
The overall scenario or design (e.g. which Role gets which Activities
at what moment in the process) is described within the Method
element
Formula of Learning Design Rules
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If
Learning Situation
required level of effectiveness, efficiency,
attractiveness, accessibility AND
characteristics of learning objectives,
learners, setting, media AND
Values of learning designer
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then
Learning Design Method
a play of one or more sequential acts with
one or more parallel role-parts
taking into account a set of conditions for
the play, act, or role-part
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with
A certain probability of success
Thank you for your attention!!!!
ISD phases
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Analysis
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Design
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resources
Implementation
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Instructional scenario
Learning flow
Xml coding
Development
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Instructional problem
Publication and run of UoL
Evaluation
Bloom
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three domains of learning: Cognitive (what we
know or think), Psychomotor (what we do,
physically) and Affective (what we feel, or what
attitudes we have). These taxonomies still
influence the design of instruction.
General Concept of Learning Design
Sharing and Re-using
 The ‘design’ needs to be described
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at a sufficient level of abstraction that it can be
generalised beyond the single teaching and learning
context for which it is created,
but not at such an abstract level that the pedagogical
value and richness is lost
IMS-Learning Design intends to solve this
IMS LD Elements
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Roles
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Represent the type of a participant in a UoL
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Staff (e.g. teacher, tutor)
Learner
Activities
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Link between Roles and Environment
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Types
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An Activity references the Role by which it has to be executed as
well as the Environment in which the activity has to be executed
Learning Activity: directed at attaining a learning objective
Support Activity: meant to facilitate a Role performing one or more
learning activities
Can be aggregated into an Activity-Structure
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Provides the mechanisms to structure Activities and UoL (Sequence
vs. Selection)
Can reference other Activities, Activity-Structures, external UoL
IMS LD Components
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Environment
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Is the setting were Activities take place
Consists of the appropriate Learning Objects and Services to be
used during the performance of the Activities
Learning Objects
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Digital or non-digital resources
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Web pages, text books, productivity tools (text processors, editors,
calculators, ...), instruments (microscope, etc.), test items,….
Services
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Facilities that are helpful in completing activities
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Communication services (e.g. mail, discussion forums, chat)
Monitoring services
Search services
…
IMS LD Elements
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Method (link between all components)
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Can be designed towards
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Learning Objectives to be met by learners
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Prerequisites
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Specified at the level of UoL or for individual learning activities
Overall entry requirements for learners for doing a UoL
Specified at the level of UoL or for individual learning activities
Contains a Play and Conditions
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Play specifies which Roles perform what Activities in what order
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The Play consists of a sequence of Acts
Each Act contains one or more Role-Parts
Each Role-Part associates a Role with an Activity or Activity-Structure
When an Act is completed, the next Act can start
Conditions are used in connection with Properties for further
refinement and to add personalisation facilities to the LD
Building a UoL
Narrative
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Title - a very short description
Provided by - author, institution, etc.
Pedagogy/Type of learning - case-based, problem-based, etc.
Description/Context - idem
Learning objectives - idem
Roles: - the various participants, such as student, tutor, etc.
Different types of learning content used - texts, internet pages
Different types of learning services/facilities/tools used
Different types of collaborative activities
Learning activity workflow - how Actors / Content / Services interact
Scenarios - e.g., same content may be used for face-to-face and
distance learning
Other needs / Specific requirements - e.g. accessibility, specific
target groups, etc.