Transcript Learning - EdPsyc Interactive

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LEARNING
John H. Hummel, Ph.D.
Dept. of Psychology, Counseling &
Guidance, VSU
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Learning
Teachers have to know the principles
governing learning in order to design
lessons and the class structure to
MAXIMIZE students’ achievement.
Humans learn all the time. The teacher
wants to insure that (a) the right stuff gets
learned, and (b) that it’s learned efficiently.
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Learning
Three TYPES of learning
– CLASSICAL/RESPONDENT
» EMOTIONS/AFFECT; PAVLOV
– OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL
» “VOLUNTARY “BEHAVIOR”
– SOCIAL LEARNING
» OPERANT? MONKEY SEE, MONKEY DO
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Learning-CLASSICAL
Basic model:
US-->UR
US + NS-->UR
NS-->CS
CS-->CR
Synonyms: UR=CR; CS=NS
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Learning-CLASSICAL
While education is concerned with the
affect domain, we are primarily concerned
with the COGNITIVE domain because it is
most directly related to achievement.
 When ever classical learning is occurring,
so is operant. Therefore, if we employ
operant correctly the affective component
will be “covered” too.
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Learning-OPERANT
The principles of operant learning account for
virtually all that humans do! These principles
operate at all times whenever one is interacting
with the environment (includes other people).
 Thus, one cannot “CHOOSE” to use or not use
operant processes; one’s “CHOICE” is, instead,
limited to using the principles
SYSTEMATICALLY or nonsystematically.
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Learning-OPERANT
Operant Model:
S--> R--> S OR R-->S
That is, an antecedent stimulus may/may
not influence whether an R occurs. If the
R occurs, IT triggers some type of
consequence-a change in the environment
that will affect the P of the R occurring
again.
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Learning-OPERANT
Antecedents.
 If an antecedent does affect the P of an R, it
is called a DISCRIMINATIVE
STIMULUS. There are 2 types of dis.
stimuli: SD and S². The SD is a signal to do
a specific R (the R, in the past, has been
rewarded when it occurred in the presence
of the SD)
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Operant-antecedents
The S² is also a signal but it “tells” one
NOT to do a R because in the past, the R in
the presence of the S² has produced a
“negative” consequence.
 To be an effective member of a complex
society requires that people “learn” to be
sensitive to and react appropriately to
antecedents. EXAMPLES
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Operant Learning
The R in operant learning symbolizes a
voluntary response--something one can stop
once it starts.
 When a R occurs, it is the consequence (i.e.,
the change in the environment) it produces
that is critical to learning.
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Operant-Consequences
There are several “rules” one should follow
for consequences to work effectively:
 Contingency & Consistency (if-then; &
reliable)
 Power (strong enough and is a “reinforcer”
for that person)
 Immediacy (time between R &
consequence)
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Operant-Consequences
An operant CONSEQUENCE involves (a)
presenting/removing of (b) a reinforcer.
REINFORCERS
Positive
Negative
(+)
(-)
(+) strengthen Rs they follow (weaken those
leading to their removal). (-) weaken Rs they
follow, strengthen those leading to their
removal.
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Operant-Consequences
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Not all stimuli used as consequences
functions as reinforcers for everyone.
– Need for CONTINGENCY ANALYSIS
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Reinforcers are “manipulated.” When R
occurs it triggers: (a) adding or (b)
subtracting of the consequence, or (c) no
change in the environment (extinction
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On-line Tutorial on Positive
Reinforcement
THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA HAS
A WONDERFUL TUTORIAL THAT WILL
HELP YOU LEARN HOW TO ANALYZE
EXAMPLES OF POSITIVE
REINFORECEMENT. GO INTO NETSCAPE,
CLICK ON THE OPEN BUTTON AND TYPE
IN:
http://server.bmod.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/rein
pair.htm
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Diagraming Consequences
Diagrams Use the Multiplicative Rules
Each diagram specifies the occurrence of a Response: R
After the response you indicate whether a consequences
was added or subtracted by using either a + or - sign.
Then you indicate which type of reinforcer was added or
subtracted: (+) or (-)
Multiplying the 2 signs after the R “tells” you the effect
the procedure has on the R. Write the outcome [+ or -] to
the right of the equals sign.
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Basic Operant Processes
There are 5 basic operant processes
 Extinction
 Positive Reinforcement
 Negative Reinforcement
 Punishment
 Response Cost
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Basic Processes: Diagrams
& Definitions
Extinction: No longer reinforcing a
previously reinforced response that results
in the weakening of the response.
 Rs not periodically rewarded stop
occurring!
R--> 0 (0) = 0
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Basic Processes: Diagrams
& Definitions
Positive Reinforcement. Reinforcement
ALWAYS strengthens a response.
 After a response, add a positive reinforcer
and the behavior is more likely to reoccur.
R--> + (+) = +
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Basic Processes: Diagrams
& Definitions
Negative Reinforcement: Reinforcement
always strengthens a response.
 After the response remove a negative
reinforcer and the response is more likely
to reoccur.
R--> - (-) = +
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Basic Processes: Diagrams
& Definitions
Punishment: After a response, add a
negative reinforcer and the response is less
likely to reoccur.
R--> + (-) = -
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Basic Processes: Diagrams
& Definitions
Response Cost: Literally, one’s response
“costs” the person something of value.
 After a response remove a positive
reinforcer and the response is less likely to
reoccur.
R--> - (+) = 
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SCHEDULES: When do Rs
Trigger Consequences
Schedules specify WHEN an occurrence of
a response will produce, normally,
reinforcement.
CRF
FR1
SCHEDULES
INTERMITTENT
EXTINCTION
Other FRs
No Consequence
VR
FI
VI
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SCHEDULES
THE CRF SCHEDULE SPECIFIES THAT
EACH OCCURRENCE OF THE R
TRIGGERS REINFORCEMENT.
WHENEVER THE R OCCURS, SO DOES
THE CONSEQUENCE. (CRF IS USED
TO TEACH NEW Rs AND WHEN ONE IS
DECREASING AN EXISTING R.)
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Schedules
Intermittent schedules, as a group, specify
that some occurrences of the R produce
reinforcement, but not all. Two Classes:
 Time-based: the INTERVAL
SCHEDULES
 Response-based: the RATION Schedules
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Schedules
Both Interval and Ratio schedules are
subdivided according to whether the time
(or number of Rs) is Fixed or Variable.
 Fixed Ratio: A set # of Rs must occur
before reinforcement. The # is constant.
 Variable Ratio: A set # of Rs must occur
before reinforcement but the # required
changes after each reinforcement.
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Schedules
Fixed Interval: A set amount of time must
pass then the first occurrence of the R
triggers reinforcement. The amount of time
is constant.
 Variable Interval: A set amount of time
must pass then the 1st occurrence of the R
triggers reinforcement; the amount of time
required changes after each reinforcement.
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Summary Points-Learning
Teachers must know the processes associated with
the various types of conditioning in order to
effectively transmit information. The laws and
principles of learning are intimately interrelated
with other topics we’ll be discussing including
memory, motivation, classroom management,
effective instruction, etc.
A. to arrange situations so students are
motivated to study and more easily/rapidly learn
academically and socially relevant skills.
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Summary Points-Learning
Too much PASSIVE learning goes on in schools. The
principles of learning tell us, dramatically, that in order
for students to learn they must overtly respond
frequently. This is incredibly important. It is associated
with fluency, affects memory, and is related to how
easily content is connected to other learned material.
A. Teachers must use have students make more
responses (i.e., do particular behaviors/activities) than
they do currently. To do this, teachers need to use the
various types of reinforcement more effectively (CIP)
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Summary Pt.’s-Learning
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Much of the misbehavior in classes results
from negative reinforcement produced by
instruction that is boring, ineffective, or
inappropriate to the students’ background
knowledge.
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Summary Pt.’s-Learning
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Some teachers incorrectly believe that they can
teach (and that students can learn) without
utilizing conditioning principles. This is
simply not true. You cannot not use
conditioning processes! The choice educators
do have is to utilize conditioning principles in
systematic ways or chaotically. All teachers of
all subjects across all grade levels can reach
more students be systematically incorporating
conditioning laws into their instruction.
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Summary Pt.’s-Learning
There are too many educators who erroneously believe
that reinforcing student responses (e.g., doing
assignments, asking/answering questions, working
with others, etc.) once they have acquired/learned the
response is wrong. Nothing could be further from the
truth. Overt responses that are not rewarded
(reinforced) every now and then will extinguish--the
student will stop doing them. When this occurs,
teachers often, unconsciously, change the tone of the
class to a negative one by using aversive procedures to
get students to do necessary work.
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Summary Points-Learning
The emphasis should be on positively
reinforcing students responses that are
appropriate. Reinforcement that is correctly
used is never inappropriate; it is never
bribery; it never hurts students in any way.
Not reinforcing their appropriate responses
(and arranging appropriate contingencies for
their inappropriate responses) does harm
students.
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Behavior Modification
Managing a classroom involves (a) a high
level of ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY,
(b) contingencies, & (c) insuring students
know what the “rules-and-consequences”
for deportment and academics are. The
emphasis is on POSITIVES.
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Behavior Modification
BM programs involve the systematic
application of learning principles to change
students’ behavior. A BM program can be
established to: Teach new skills, increase or
maintain existing levels of a behavior, or
decrease a behavior.
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1.
2.
Steps in a BM Program
First, operationally define the behavior
Collect baseline data
– (A) Insures that the R warrants intervention
– (B) Used as a standard of comparison to evaluate
intervention’s effectiveness
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Identify & apply intervention. If
intervention involves pun., RC, or Ext.,
you should always have a positive
component
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4.
Steps in a BM Program
Continue collecting data during
intervention. Evaluate effectiveness of
program and modify if needed.
5. Once program goals are reached, FADE
program so normally occurring
contingencies in the class maintain the
behavior.
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Social Learning Theory
Monkey see, Monkey do!
 In Bandura and Walter’s Theory, the
assumption is that much social (and
academic but to a lesser degree) is
learned via observing others; other
students, significant adults, t.v., etc.
 Systematic observational learning has 4
phases.
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Social Learning Theory
4 Phases of Social Learning: AReRepMo
1. Attention of learner
2. Retention: Model behavior have learner
practice covertly or overtly
3. Reproduction: Have learner overtly
practice in absence of model.
4. Motivation: Reward performance.