Transcript Last unit: Respondent Behavioral Relations S--->R US--

Unit 2, PSY 4600
Schedule
Thursday and Tuesday: Lecture
Wednesday, 1/29: 6:00-7:30 PM Instructional Assistance
1st Floor Wood Hall Lounge
Thursday, 1/30: Exam
1
Last unit: Respondent Behavioral Relations
S--->R
US--->UR
CS--->CR
This unit: Operant Behavioral Relations
MO:SD/S∆:R--->Sc
Focus on operant consequences and SDs and S∆s
2
SO 2: Basic Behavioral Principles
1. Reinforcement
A. Positive
B. Negative (difference between pos & neg?)
1. Escape (alarm clock, safety harness after chime)
2. Avoidance (safety harness before chime; child
plays quietly)
2. Punishment
3. Operant Extinction (withheld, not withdrawn)
Examples on page 18 of the Study Objectives
(terminates or avoids, e-aversive stim that comes before, TV screen clears, food reinforcement, avoid vs. pun, Decrease to avoid conseq – not correct;
student asks question, professor says; pun dec; avoid incr; cannot increase a nonbehavior; extinction burst, taking truck away, sending a child 3
from the
table; language will be very clear in the examples I provide on the exam)
SO 2: Examples (in SOs)
• Rafael gets a muscle cramp. He massages the
muscle and the cramp immediately decreases in
severity. As a result, when Rafael gets a muscle
cramp in the future, he massages it more often than
he had done in the past.
• A student wants to make a copy. She inserts her
Bronco Card into a copy machine and pushes the
button. No copies are made. The student pushes
and pushes the button, but still no copies are made.
As a result, the student pushes the copy button on
that machine less often.
4
SO 2 (Examples, cont.)
• Barbara calls her little sister a scardy cat and the
little sister immediately begins to cry. As a result,
Barbara calls her sister a scardy cat more often in
the future.
• A worker is standing around with co-workers and
puts on her hard hat before entering the
construction area. Her supervisor sees this and
immediately says “Hey, that’s great, Grace! Thanks
for making safety first a reality!” As a result, Grace
puts on her hard hat less often in the future.
(effect on behavior, can’t just look at the conseq; teachers and elementary school children
, criticism,attention)
5
SO 2: Final Example
• Jake gets bitten by bugs when he walks in the woods.
One day, he puts on a new kind of bug repellant and
does not get bitten by bugs. As a result, in the future,
he puts on that new kind of bug repellant before he
walks in the woods more often.
(exam examples, Tas use examples from your exams)
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SO 3: Abbreviations:
Unconditioned and Conditioned Reinforcers
Unconditioned Reinforcer
SR NOT UR
UR=Unconditioned Response
Conditioned Reinforcer
Sr NOT CR
CR=Conditioned Response
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SO 4: Introduction
• Unit starts with animal training
– Dolphin training, e.g., Shedd Aquarium, San Diego Sea
World, Georgia Aquarium
– Behavioral enrichment in zoos, e.g., Honolulu Zoo,
Atlanta Zoo, Brookfield Zoo, Disney Land and Disney
World, Busch Gardens-Orlando
– Animal training (dogs, cats, horses, etc.), Karen Pryor
(Don’t shoot the dog), Mary Burch & Jon Bailey (How
dogs learn), Mary Burch, (Citizen Canine – AKA), Gillette
Obedience Training (Galesburg, MI), Applied animal
training practicum (WMU, UMN-Duluth)
– “Clicker Training”: Clicker as an Sr (athletes)
(Gulf oil spill; Binti Jua – Brookfield zoo, Otto Fad, Ken Ramirez)
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SO 4: The Aggressive Bull Elephant
San Diego Zoo
• An aggressive elephant
• Husbandry includes cutting off calluses on feet,
otherwise, eventually they can’t walk
• G. Priest established a “click” as an Sr
• Shaped the elephant to walk to a wall with hole in
it, put its foot through the hole, and stand
patiently while the vet cut off the calluses.
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SO 4: Advantage of Srs vs. SRs
When shaping, the delivery of the consequence must follow the
appropriate behavior (the successive approximation to the target
behavior) as immediately after the behavior as possible.
Otherwise, some other inappropriate behavior may be reinforced.
If an SR, such as food, is used, it is going to be hard to:
• deliver it immediately after the appropriate behavior
e.g., tossing a carrot in the cage of the elephant - by the
time you react, the elephant has emitted a new behavior
• the animal is going to stop and eat the food, which halts the
shaping process (or behavioral sequence)
• It also prevents satiation
(a) Srs can often be delivered more immediately than SRs,
(b) Srs don’t interfere with the behavioral sequence as SRs
may
(c) Srs prevent satiation of the reinforcer
10
SO 5: Development and Testing of an Sr
Development
When food deprived (MO):
NS (click) / SR (carrot) (no behavior is necessary!)
NS becomes an Sr
Critical features:
• The NS is paired with an SR (or Sr) (NOT a US!)
• The NS precedes the SR when pairing takes place
• No behavior is necessary
• The NS becomes an Sr
(NOT a CS!)
(How trainers made click; all in SOs,click, crticial features on slide - not for the exam, need to test)
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SO 5: Development and Testing of an Sr
Testing
When food deprived (MO):
R (any response) ----> Sr (click)
*If R increases in frequency, the NS has become an Sr
Critical features:
1. The Sr follows the response (operant relation)
2. The Sr is presented alone (not with the SR)
3. The R must increase in frequency in the future
4. The Sr must occasionally be paired with the SR
(*essential - if the R doesn’t increase, no reinforcer, click critical features)
12
SO5: Sample test question
• Sample test question is at the end of SO5
• Answer is at the end of the study objectives
for this unit
• I guarantee that a similar question will be on
the exam
13
SO6: Difference Between
Respondent Conditioning and Development of an Sr
The confusion: Both involve pairing an NS with another
stimulus
Difference:
Respondent
Conditioning:
NS/US, or NS/CS
Development
of an Sr:
NS/SR, or NS/Sr
(Respondent conditioning: NS becomes a CS-->CR; Sr NS becomes Sr; R-->Sr)
(Thought question: When will an NS become both a CS and an Sr? NS, click)
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SO8: Behavioral Enrichment in Zoos
• Behavioral interventions designed to improve the well
being and health of captive animals
• Hal Markowitz started this work in the 1970s
• Zoos have a very important function: protection of
endangered species, education of public
– keep humans from destroying natural habitats
– keep humans from killing off species of animals (ivory
tusks or furs)
– protect and preserve species that are endangered due
to disease, natural disasters
(mother nature ain’t kind – Poling story)
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Zoos
• Many of us cringe when we think about
zoos – animals in prison
• But over the years, zoos have been
attempting to make life better for the
animals
(but most zoos have come a long way..)
16
SO8: Two popular* approaches zoos have
tried to make life better for animals
• Make the enclosures more naturalistic
• Add toys, boomer balls
*popular, but ineffective
Neither – terrifically effective – naturalistic enclosures first)
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SO9: What’s the problem, even
when enclosures are naturalistic?
• Naturalistic enclosures sometimes do have
some benefits for the animals
• Certainly make us more comfortable
18
SO9: What’s the problem, even
when enclosures are naturalistic?
• Fail to include the behavioral contingencies in the wild that
reinforce species typical (and active) behavior
• Much of the behavior of free-ranging animals involves getting
food (the only one mentioned by Chance), fighting off or
fleeing predators, natural migration, securing mates and
mating, establishing social hierarchies, etc.
• It’s the consequences of those behaviors that maintain much
of the active behavior of wild animals
– some behavior is, of course, genetic
– over the years, they have discovered, however, that many behaviors
that were once considered inherited are learned
(most groups, dominant male: stallions, mares; gorillas; ducklings following Mom
closeness to object, following in the natural environment, bird’s songs)
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SO9: What’s the problem, even
when enclosures are naturalistic?
• In zoos, food is provided usually in the same place at the
same time each day, animals are completely protected from
predators, certainly cannot migrate to different locations, and
are not subjected to threats of their domination from outside
animals
• There is “no reason” for animals to be active
• Behaviorally the reason to be active:
R (species typical behaviors)  SR (food or other reinforcers)
• What happens if behaviors are not followed by
reinforcement?
(in a zoo, no one wants to see an antelope/Bambi killed, mauled, and eaten by a hyena)
20
Great enclosures,
but no reinforcement
for active behaviors
Toys and boomer
balls, but no
reinforcement for
playing with them
21
SO10: Examples of Behavioral
Enrichment
• Servals
(Who can’t love a face like this? Click…Servals swim in the wild; naturalistic
enclosures included ponds – servals didn’t’ swim. Guess what was missing?)
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Enrichment for Servals:
Honolulu Zoo
Species typical behavior (swimming) with same
reinforcement as in the wild (fish)
(not squirmish about dead fish; only dead mammals; click; 5-gallon ice, cross-species)
23
Enrichment for Elephants: Honolulu Zoo
Species typical behavior (manipulating objects with
trunk) with the same reinforcement as in the wild (food)
(variation on the same theme: elephant keggers; not beer!)
24
Enrichment for Langor Monkeys:
Honolulu Zoo
Species typical behavior (grooming and foraging)
with reinforcement (fruit loops)
(mop head on bungee cord, laced with fruit loops, last slide on this)
25
SO11: Delusions, hallucinations
• Chance presents a number of very interesting
cases
• Delusions and hallucinations - seeing, hearing
things that aren’t really there (little green men,
voices, etc.)
• Sometimes they are organic or have physiological
causes - brain injury, Alzheimer’s disease, drugs sometimes they may be due to operant
conditioning, but
• They often can be altered by operant conditioning
procedures.
(back to humans!)
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SO11A: What was reinforcing the
delusional behavior that her head
was falling off?
• Woman in a mental institution who believed her
head was falling off.
• She seemed quite frightened when this was
occurring and the staff immediately tried to calm
her down.
• The delusion got worse - she began to hear
“popping” noises right before her head was going
to fall off.
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SO11A Cont.
Behavioral psychologists observed:
• She had difficulty approaching staff and engaging
them in conversation.
• She had poor social skills so when she did
approach them, the staff responded with
annoyance.
• When her head was falling off or when she heard
popping sounds prior to her head falling off, the
staff paid attention to her and comforted her.
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SO11B: Intervention components
Solution?
• Taught her better social skills
• Taught staff to reinforce her appropriate (actually,
better) social behaviors
• Taught staff to extinguish any behavior related to
her head falling off
Result?
“Her head remained firmly attached to her body.”
(Very nice ethical procedure - next slide)
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SO11C: Why is this such a nice
example of an ethical intervention?
• Social interaction with staff was a powerful Sr for her
(as evidenced by her delusional behaviors - popping
sounds, head falling off)
• If they had only extinguished (not to mention
punished) the delusional behavior, it would have
deprived the woman of an important reinforcer for
her - decreasing her “quality of life”
**Identified the powerful reinforcer for her, the one
maintaining the inappropriate behavior, then
arranged to have that same reinforcer provided for
appropriate behavior, thus preserving her quality of
life.
(quality of life, enriched environment – number/quality of reinforcers for behaviors
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Note, they did extinguish the delusional behaviors – “head following off”)
SO12: The Haggly Old Witch
• Patient was a young male “schizophrenic” in the
psychiatric hospital
• Presenting problem: A haggly old witch kept
following him around.
• Medication helped, but he continued to report
that she was “dogging” him
• Intervention: Record the strength of his belief that
the witch was really there on a 100-point rating
scale.
– 100 = Absolutely, positively certain
– 0 = Witch is not there, it’s my imagination
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SO12
• Reinforced expressions of doubt
• After 26 days, the patient consistently reported
that the witch was all in his imagination!
• Think of the implications - the intervention
consisted of “simply” reinforcing the verbal
behavior of the client, and it changed his reality.
32
SO13
But how do we know that the schizophrenic
patient really believed that the witch was no
longer following him?
How do we know that the patient simply wasn’t
telling the therapist what he knew the therapist
wanted to hear?
33
SO13
• The patient always took a certain tranquilizer when
he believed the haggly old witch was there
• The therapist recorded the number of tranquilizers
the patient took, using an ABAB reversal design
• Surely enough, during treatment, he did not take as
many tranquilizers, and at the end of treatment he
wasn’t taking any.
34
Meyerson & Michael: SDs and S∆s
• Definitions: SDs and S∆ (not for the exam)
• My definition of an SD for this class (in SO14):
A stimulus that precedes a response and evokes that
response because that particular response has been
reinforced in its presence and not in its absence.
• Malott’s definition:
A stimulus in the presence of which a response has been
reinforced or punished.
• Pietras’ definition:
An event that precedes an operant and sets the occasion for
the behavior. They change the probability of behavior based
on a history of differential reinforcement.
(animation of this study on Dr. Johnson’s web site, link is on my web page)
35
SO15: Development and Testing of an SD
Development/Training: dolphin to jump and back flip
immediately after seeing a hand signal but not in its absence
SD (hand signal):
R (jump and back flip) --->SR (food)
S∆ (no hand signal): R (jump and back flip) --->Ext (no food)
Testing: After repeated SD and S∆ training above, will the
dolphin jump and do a back flip ONLY after the hand signal?
SD (hand signal):
R (jump and back flip)
S∆ (no hand signal):
NO R (does not jump/back flip)
(both SD and S∆ training necessary)
(no ext in s∆ testing)
36
SO15: SD/S∆ Another Example
Development/Training: rat to press a lever immediately when
a light is on and ONLY when the light is on.
SD (light on):
R (press lever)
--->SR (water)
S∆ (no light):
R (press lever)
--->Ext (no water)
Testing: After repeated SD and S∆ training above, will the
rat press the lever ONLY after the light on?
SD (light on): R (press lever)
S∆ (no light):
NO R (no lever press)
37
SO15: Sample test question
• Sample test question is at the end of SO15
• Answer is at the end of the study objectives
for this unit
• I guarantee that a similar question will be on
the exam
38
SOs16 &17: Two Important Issues About SDs
• SDs immediately evoke a response - within 5 - 60
sec after the SD occurs.
– They do NOT increase the future frequency of a
response. Only consequences affect the future
frequency of a response. (-1 on exam)
• SDs precede responses
– They do NOT precede other stimuli, e. g.,
yellow light and red light.
39
SOs 19-25: Meyerson & Michael,
Introduction
• M&M developed a procedure to test the hearing of
nonverbal children diagnosed with developmental
disabilities. Ingenious procedure.
• Typical hearing test requires that individuals have a verbal
repertoire, that is, have language
• Developed before federal regulations required such
hearing tests
• Dickinson’s experience - ten years after the article,
undiagnosed hearing problem with child who had spent 3
years in a mental institution
(Meyerson, deaf, rehabilitation psychology,Blough technique)
40
Lee Meyerson
Jack Michael
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Meyerson & Michael Description: Overview
• Ultimate goal/hearing test
– Pull the right lever when the child heard a tone
– Pull the left lever when he/she did NOT hear a tone
• Why pull left lever when he/she did NOT hear a tone?
(answer not on slide)
42
Meyerson & Michael, Overview cont.
• Three 30-min phases
– Stimulus discrimination training (SD/S∆ training)
– Stimulus fading and stimulus generalization
(bringing lever pulling under the control of the
critical stimuli - tone on/tone off)
– Hearing test
43
Basic M&M Apparatus
Left
Light
Right
Light
Left
Lever
Right
Lever
Reinforcement
Dispenser Tray
44
SO20: Phase 1: Two Discriminations: Right Lever Pull and Left Lever Pull
Right Lever Pull
SD:
R1
------------------>
Tone on (500 cps, 40 dbl) Right lever pull
SR/Sr (VR8 schedule)
Edibles
R light on, L light off
Trinkets
S∆:
Tone off
R light off, L light on
R1
------------------>
Right lever pull
EXT
No edibles
No trinkets
R2
------------------>
Left lever pull
SR/Sr (VR8 schedule)
Edibles
Left Lever Pull
SD:
Tone off
R light off, L light on
Trinkets
S∆:
EXT
No edibles
No trinkets
R2
------------------>
Tone on (500 cps, 40 dbl) Left lever pull
R light on, L light off
(VR8 schedule-SO20 Nxt slide. If pulled wrong lever, reset the VR8 schedule for that lever)
(SO19: two SD/S∆ disc, two responses. Three stimuli for SD and S∆)
45
NFE: M&M Reinforcement Schedule
• Technical Name: VR8
• Reinforcement provided after an average of
8 responses
– In this case, lever pulls
• What type of response pattern does it
generate?
• Why did M&M use this schedule?
(answers not on slide)
46
SO21: Why are there two discriminations?
•
A “discrimination” consists of an SD and S∆ for a particular
response
There were two responses each with an SD and S∆
•
–
Right level pull:
•
•
–
SD (tone on, R light on, L light off)
S∆ (tone off, R light off, L light on)
Left lever pull
•
•
SD (tone off, R light off, L light on)
S∆ (tone on, R light on, L light off)
Note carefully: it is NOT because the SD and S∆ are
made up of more than one stimulus – the critical issue
is that there two different responses, each with an SD and S∆
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SO 22, Phase 2, Stimulus Fading
• Gradually made the lights over the two levers
dimmer and dimmer until they would no longer
light up)
• Not for the exam:
But why did M&M use the lights as stimuli in the
first phase if they were just going to fade them
out in the second phase?
(both stimulus fading and generalization, 2nd training; answer not on slide;
next slide, discriminations after training)
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Phase 2: Discriminations after Stimulus Fading of Lights
Right Lever Pull
SD:
Tone on
R1
------------------>
Right lever pull
S∆ :
R1
------------------> EXT
Right lever pull
No edibles
No trinkets
Tone off
SR/Sr (VR8)
Edibles
Trinkets
Left Lever Pull
SD:
Tone off
R2
------------------>
Left lever pull
SR/Sr (VR8)
Edibles
Trinkets
S∆:
R2
------------------>
Left lever pull
EXT
No edibles
No trinkets
Tone on
49
SOs 23 & 24 Phase 2 Generalization Training
• Phase 1: one tone, a 500 cps tone, 40 dcbls
• Phase 2: tones of different frequencies presented in
sequence (400, 500, 600, etc.)
Why was this stimulus generalization training necessary?
Pulling the right lever was reinforced only when the 500
cps tone was presented in the first phase but they
wanted to child to pull the right lever when he/she heard any
tone, not just the 500 cps tone.
(bold faced part is essential; explanation, next slide)
50
SO 24 Generalization Training, cont.
Explanation:
During phase 1, pulling the right lever was reinforced
only after a 500 cps tone was presented. Wanted:
SD (any tone): R (right lever pull)
SD (no tone): R (left lever pull)
But:
SD (only 500 cps tone): R (right lever pull)
SD (no tone or any other tone): R (left lever pull)
(expect stimulus fixation, DD and autistic, mom new hair cut, dad, new glasses)
51
SO 25: Meyerson & Michael Hearing Test
• Presented different tones, different loudness in steps of 5
to 10 decibles
• What lever would the child pull if a 600 cps tone at 100
dbls was presented and the child could hear it?
• What lever would the child pull if a 600 cps tone at 40 dbls
was presented but the child could not hear it?
52
SO26: SDs & S∆s
• Assume in M&M during training, a tone is presented, and the
child pulls the left lever (a “mistake” - more technically, the
response has not come under appropriate stimulus control).
The tone is what type of stimulus for the left lever pull?
Another example:
Suppose Mom is teaching her young child the alphabet. She
reinforces “M” when she holds up a picture of the letter “M”.
She extinguishes any other verbal response, like “N”.
The picture M is what type of stimulus for the
vocal response of “N”?
53
SO 27: Automaticity of Reinforcement, M&M
• Even though the children did not have verbal behavior
(language), they quickly acquired the appropriate
discriminations, even though the procedures are, indeed,
rather complicated and difficult to explain.
• Strong evidence for the automaticity of reinforcement, that
is, that operant conditioning can and often does work
without awareness.
i.e., individuals do not have to be able to describe, understand, or be
aware of the relationship between the SDs, S∆s, and consequences in
order for their behavior to be affected by them.
• Note carefully, it is not the behaviors they are “unaware of”
– the point is that the conditioning process works without
awareness of the individual.
(parents, teachers, informed consent, never work, Maria, if time)
54
U1 SO 13: Elicit (review)
•
Simple Rule:
USs elicit URs, CSs elicit CRs
_________________________________
• Elicit is only used in respondent relations
• ONLY USs and CSs elicit responses:
Organisms do NOT
• Only responses can be elicited
55
U1 SO13 Examples (review):
Is elicit used correctly?
• When the temperature is cold, a person elicits
a shivering response.
• The SD (a tone) elicited the behavior of
turning in a circle by the pigeon.
• The CS (a tone) elicited the CR (salivation).
• In lower order conditioning, the NS elicits the
US.
56
SO 18: Evoke
• Simple rule: USs evoke URs, CSs evoke CRs
and SDs evoke Rs
Critical features: (you do not have to memorize these)
• Only antecedent stimuli can evoke
– Organisms do not evoke responses
– Behaviors do not evoke consequences
– Reinforcement does not evoke behaviors
• Only responses can be evoked by stimuli
(evoke vs elicit - nxt slide)
57
SO 18: Evoke vs. Elicit
• Similarities
– Only (antecedent) stimuli elicit and evoke
– Only responses can be evoked
• Differences
– Elicit is used ONLY in respondent relations, e.g., USs
elicit URs, CSs elicit CRs
– Evoke can be used in either respondent or operant
relations, e.g.,
USs evoke URs, CSs evoke CRs, SDs evoke Rs
58
THE END
• Questions?
• See my web page for animated illustration
of M&M
• Instructional assistance hours:
– Wednesday, 1/29, 6:00-7:30 PM
– Wood Hall First Floor Lounge
• Derek will be conducting them
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