Transcript Child Development Theorists

From Freud to Brazelton:
100 Years of Child & Parenting
Development Theories
by Dr. Marty Rossmann
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Child Development Through The Ages
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6th - 15th Centuries Medieval Period
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Child Development Through The Ages
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16th Century Reformation Period
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Child Development Through The Ages
17th Century
Age of Enlightenment
 John Locke believed in
tabula rasa
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Children develop in
response to nurturing.
Forerunner of
behaviorism
18th Century Age
of Reason
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
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children were noble savages,
born with an innate sense of
morality; the timing of growth
should not be interfered with.
Rousseau used the idea
of stages of
development.
Forerunner of
maturationist beliefs
Child Development Through The Ages
19th Century
Industrial Revolution
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Charles Darwin
– theories of
natural selection
and survival of
the fittest
Darwin made parallels
between human
prenatal growth and
other animals.
20th Century
Theories about children's
development expanded
around the world.
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Childhood was seen as
worthy of special attention.
Laws were passed to protect
children,
Child Development
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Definition:
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Periods of development:
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Change in the child that occurs over time. Changes follow an
orderly pattern that moves toward greater complexity and
enhances survival.
Prenatal period: from conception to birth
Infancy and toddlerhood: birth to 2 years
Early childhood: 2-6 years old
Middle childhood: 6-12 years old
Adolescence: 12-19 years old
Domains of Development
Development is described in three domains, but growth
in one domain influences the other domains.
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Physical Domain:
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Cognitive Domain:
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thought processes and intellectual abilities including attention,
memory, problem solving, imagination, creativity, academic and
everyday knowledge, metacognition, and language.
Social/Emotional Domain:
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body size, body proportions, appearance, brain development, motor
development, perception capacities, physical health.
self-knowledge (self-esteem, metacognition, sexual identity, ethnic
identity), moral reasoning, understanding and expression of
emotions, self-regulation, temperament, understanding others,
interpersonal skills, and friendships.
Theories
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What is a theory?
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What do theories accomplish?
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Orderly set of ideas which describe, explain, and predict
behavior.
To give meaning to what we observe.
As a basis for action -- finding ways to improve the lives and
education of children.
Why Study Child & Parenting
Development Theories?
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1. Helps you understand yourself better
2. It helps understanding of future generations
3. Learn skills and techniques for interaction with
children
4. Allows a measure of normal behavior
5. Grants a greater appreciation of development
throughout life.
Sigmund Freud • Erik Erikson • Maria Montessori
Jean Piaget • Urie Bronfenbrenner • Lev Semenovich Vygotsky
Abraham Maslow • Arnold Gesell • John Bowlby • Rudolph Dreikurs
Lawrence Kohlberg • B.F. Skinner • Benjamin Spock
Diana Baumrind • T. Berry Brazelton • Howard Gardner
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Why Study the Selected Theories?
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The selected theories:
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Have been popular and influential.
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Represent different approaches to parent-child interaction.
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Offer help in the “real world” of daily child-rearing.
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Make good common sense.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalytic Theory
The unconscious is the source of motivations.
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Individuals go through stages in
childhood and adolescence that
shape their adult personality.
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Behavior is influenced by the unconscious mind.
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Early experiences affect development in later life.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalytic Theory
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The unconscious is the source of motivations.
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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalytic Theory
The unconscious is the source of motivations.
The personality development of a child is complex.
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Psychic Life Functions:
– ID - present at birth; directs need gratification;
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pleasure seeking; and pain avoidance.
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EGO - Responsible for contact with day to day reality;
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SUPEREGO - Internal interpretation of the rules and
predicts probable outcomes of behavior choices.
values of the environment.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalytic Theory
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The unconscious is the source of motivations.
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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Psychoanalytic Theory
The unconscious is the source of motivations.
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Defense Mechanisms:
– Repression - pushing depressing matters out of consciousness.
– Sublimation - substituting acceptable ways of expressing feelings.
– Regression - returning to an earlier way of adjusting to problems.
– Compensation - substituting success in one area for failure in
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another.
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Rationalization - giving a socially accepted reason for a behavior
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Escape - leaving a distressing situation, either physically or
that was not socially acceptable.
psychologically.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Psychosocial Theory
There are stages of psychological development.
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Focus is on:
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Developing a healthy personality.
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Humans develop throughout their life span in eight stages.
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Individuals need to develop identity at each stage.
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Culture is a part of a person’s socialization.
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If an individual does not achieve a stage, the consequences
may be alterable later in life.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Psychosocial Theory
There are stages of psychological development.
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Psychosocial Stages:
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Trust vs. Mistrust (0-12 to 18 mos.)
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Autonomy vs. Doubt (18 mos. to 3 years)
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Infant forms a loving, trusting relationship with parent or
is frustrated and lacks self-confidence.
Child needs to develop self-control with firm, gradual and
kindly support of parents so the child does not lose selfesteem.
Initiative vs. Guilt (4-6 years)
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Child gains skill in language and exploring and needs
guidance from parents to proceed in life in a selfconfident, guilt-free way.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Psychosocial Theory
There are stages of psychological development.
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Psychosocial Stages:
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Industry vs. Inferiority (7-12+ years)
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Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years)
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Child pursues and completes activities that produce something
and gain recognition from parents, teachers and friends.
Failure makes the child feel inadequate and inferior.
The sense of “who I am” and what part I play in society
(occupation, politics, sex roles, religion, etc.) is determined.
Parents have new expectations for the adolescent. Those who
don’t develop effective steps toward a tangible future may be
insecure, confused and lack self-esteem.
(There are more stages for adults, not shown here.)
Erik Erikson (1902-1994)
Psychosocial Theory
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There are stages of psychological development.
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Maria Montessori (1870-1952)
Parents as Preschool Educators
Parents guide their children’s development.
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Each child has an innate unique talent.
Children should be guided with love and
affection to expected behavior.
Children should use hands-on activities to learn how to
care for themselves and a home.
Parents should be aware that learning takes place in a
sequence.
Parents should not be too quick to criticize or correct.
Parents should encourage their child to do as much as
possible on their own.
Arnold Gesell (1880-1961)
Developmental Maturational Theory
Heredity plays a role in children’s development.
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Children develop in an orderly
sequence set by heredity.
No developmental event will take place until the child
is ready for it to happen.
Maturity traits are identified in
steps in areas such as:
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Motor activity, personal function
Emotional expression, fears
Sexuality
Social relations and playtime
Dr. Arnold Gesell
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Cognitive Development Theory
Understanding & supporting a child’s learning.
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Two processes are essential
for development:
– Assimilation
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Learning to understand events or objects,
based on existing structure.
Accommodation
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Expanding understanding, based on new information.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Cognitive Development Theory
Understanding & supporting a child’s learning.
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Sensorimotor (Birth – 2 years)
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Learning about world through 5 senses (see, feel, hear, smell & taste).
Learning to control and manipulate muscles (small & large motor skills).
Learning about self (egocentric).
Learning from trial and error (12-18 months).
Thinking about how to do something without actually doing it.
Preoperational (2-7 years)
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Learning by using language and mental images.
Learning to internalize thought process.
Continuing to be egocentric.
Learning by watching and performing.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
Cognitive Development Theory
Understanding & supporting a child’s learning.
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Concrete Operational (6 or 7-12 years)
– Learning to understand someone else’s point of view.
– Learning to resolve problems with logic.
– Learning conservation (amounts of liquid remain the same, even if
the shape changes).
Formal Operations (13 years – adult)
– Thinking logically, abstractly, and hypothetically.
– Testing theories by hypotheses.
– Understanding right vs. wrong.
– Glimpse of complexity of knowledge in teens leads some to believe
they understand nothing and others to believe they are on the
verge of understanding everything.
Lev Semenovich Vygotsky (1896-1934)
Socio-Cultural Theory
Culture & experiences play a role in a child’s learning.
Patterns and ways of learning are outcomes of the practices
experienced by the child in the culture where the child grew up.
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Five Step Process:
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Step 1 - Adult provides tools, modeling, guidance, interaction and
encouragement.
Step 2 - Child performs task under adult guidance and adult asks
appropriate questions and expands on the child’s responses.
Step 3 - Adult helps child develop tasks into smaller segments and
assesses child’s understanding.
Step 4 - Adult provides the “scaffolding” (support) necessary in a
learning situation.
Step 5 - Adult guides child into new situations by having child
transfer familiar knowledge to the unfamiliar.
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Socio-Cultural Theory
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Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-
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Human Ecology Theory
Influences on parents and child are complex.
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Interactions with others and
environments influence
parent-child relations.
To understand a child, one must understand not only
their relationships with their parents and siblings,
but also the complex network of interrelated
behavior patterns and roles among all family
members that comprise the system.
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-
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Human Ecology Theory
Influences on parents and child are complex.
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Interactions among parts of the system
impact parent-child relationships:
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Child’s self esteem.
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Relationships between parent(s) and child.
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Relationships between parents.
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Relationships among all family members.
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Informal supports (such as neighbors).
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Institutional relationships (such as faith community).
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Socio-economic, culture and political influences.
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Natural environments (such as air and water quality).
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Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
Human Needs Theory
Human needs influence each person’s development.
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Influence of a hierarchy of human
needs on personality.
Lower need must be filled before upper-level needs
receive attention.
Child’s genetic potential will not flourish unless they
are nurtured by adults as the child grows.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Need to maximize
one’s potential.
Need for self-respect
and self-esteem and for
the esteem of others.
Need for community,
family, friends, lover,
affection & intimacy.
Need for security,
stability, freedom from
fear, structure & order.
Need for shelter,
food, clothes, air,
sleep, and activity.
John Bowlby (1907-1990)
Attachment Theory
Bonding is an essential part of a child’s development.
Attachment describes the strong feeling that
binds children emotionally to their parents.
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Parent’s ability to adjust and accommodate to their child’s behavior
style is the key determinant of a child’s attachment to a parent.
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If a parent is warm and responsive then a child will be
securely attached (cry when parent leaves, greets parent happily
upon their return).
If a parent is not sensitive or responsive then the child will be
anxious avoidant (rarely frets when parent leaves and avoids the
parent when they return).
If a parent is inconsistent, sometimes responsive, sometimes not, then
the child will be anxious resistant (frets before parent leaves, seeks
contact when parent returns, but also resists contact by pushing away).
Rudolph Dreikurs (1897-1972)
Children of Challenge
Principles to guide a parent raising a child.
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Children are motivated by a desire to belong.
Children are expert observers, but make mistakes in
interpreting what they observe.
Children exhibit goal-seeking behaviors.
Selected principles:
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Understand the child’s goals — usually the goal will be for
attention, power, revenge or to appear to be inadequate.
Encourage the child.
Avoid punishment and rewards.
Rudolph Dreikurs (1897-1972)
Children of Challenge
Principles to guide a parent raising a child.
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Use natural and logical consequences.
Be firm without dominating.
Respect the child.
Maintain routines.
Sidestep power struggles.
Refrain from over-protection.
Follow through — be consistent.
Listen.
Have fun together.
Talk WITH your child, not TO them.
Establish a family council.
Lawrence Kohlberg ( 1927-1987)
Moral Development Theory
Identifies steps toward character development.
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Children are moral philosophers.
Children experience a series of
predictable stages in their moral reasoning.
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Levels of Moral Development:
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Level 1 – Preconventional (4-10 years)
Decisions are based on consequences.
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Stage 1 - Children respond to threat of punishment.
Stage 2 - Children learn that correct action brings reward.
Lawrence Kohlberg ( 1927-1987)
Moral Development Theory
Identifies steps toward character development.
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Level 2 – Conventional (10 years and older)
Decisions are based on social rules and expectations.
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Stage 3 - Children are concerned about other’s opinions and
that “good” behavior pleases others.
Stage 4 - Law and order are important.
Level 3 – Postconventional (some adolescents and adults)
Decisions are based on personal ethics of what is morally right.
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Stage 5 - Moral decisions are made through understanding that
society’s rules are for everyone and were made by consensus.
Stage 6 - Universal principles determine right from wrong.
John Watson
Behaviorism Theory
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Early 20th century, "Father of American Behaviorist
theory.”
Based his work on Pavlov's experiments on the
digestive system of dogs.
Researched classical conditioning
Children are passive beings who can be molded by
controlling the stimulus-response associations.
B.F.Skinner (1904-1990)
Operant Conditioning Theory
Role parents play in shaping child’s behavior.
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Emphasizes the role of the parent in
reinforcing (rewarding) the child’s behaviors.
Consequences of a behavior lead to
changes in its frequency.
Behavior patterns will change if the child is
rewarded, ignored or punished.
B.F.Skinner (1904-1990)
Operant Conditioning Theory
Role parents play in shaping child’s behavior.
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Conditioning functions:
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Consequences include:
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Shaping behavior - reinforcing a behavior “close” to the
desired behavior.
Chaining behavior - linking together a series of small steps
toward the desired behavior.
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Positive reinforcement - something that causes an act to
increase in the future, i.e. a child smiles and gets a hug.
Negative reinforcement - child causes unpleasantness to
cease, i.e. parents “lecture” stops when child cleans room.
Punishment - unpleasant act by parent discourages behavior
in the future, i.e. T.V. privileges taken away.
Benjamin Spock (1903-1998)
Baby and Child Care
Encourages parents to trust themselves and enjoy their baby.
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Parents should:
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Understand there are great differences between individual
children — and that some children are more difficult than
others.
Understand that parents have needs that should be met.
Understand that it’s hard work to be a parent.
Love and respect their children.
Feed babies when they’re hungry.
Let their tired babies cry, after checking to make sure they
aren’t hungry, cold or need a diaper changed.
Understand there is a need to be flexible.
Diana Baumrind (1926-
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Parenting Styles Theory
The way parents set limits and love their children.
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Permissive:
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Authoritarian:
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Parent accepts the child’s wishes and is passive in discipline.
Parent makes few demands on child.
Child may wonder if the parent cares about them.
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Parent values obedience.
Parent teaches respect for work, others, and order.
Parent shapes, controls and evaluates behavior of child with
set of conduct rules.
Child may feel anger; and be resentful of parents.
Diana Baumrind (1926-
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Parenting Styles Theory
The way parents set limits and love their children.
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Authoritative:
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Parents encourage verbal give and take.
Parents provide firm limits with love and support.
Parents affirm child’s good attributes.
Child feels cared about and knows family rules are
consistently enforced.
T. Berry Brazelton (1919-
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Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
Early physical, neurological & emotional development.
The Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
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Brazelton
Assesses the physical and neurological responses of newborns as well
as their emotional well-being and individual differences.
Focuses on individual differences of newborns and cross-cultural
studies of infant behavior and early parenting practices.
Stresses the importance of early intervention for at-risk parents and
their babies.
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Emphasizes the development of attachment in the first four months.
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Identifies opportunities in early infancy for strengthening families.
Howard Gardner (1943-
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Multiple Intelligences Theory
Eight innate “intelligences” of learning.
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There are eight distinct forms of intelligence
that everyone possesses in varying degrees.
Parents should focus on the intelligences of their children.
Different cultures emphasize different intelligences.
Verbal/Linguistic:
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Able to use words and languages — communicates effectively by speaking,
listening, reading & writing.
Uses reason, logic and numbers.
Sensitive to the meaning of words and enjoys writing, reading and
crossword puzzles.
Logical/Mathematical:
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Thinks in logical & numerical patterns, and detects patterns.
Incorporates mathematical and scientific abilities and drawn to
strategic games and experiments.
Howard Gardner (1943-
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Multiple Intelligences Theory
Eight innate “intelligences” of learning.
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Musical/Rhythmic:
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Visual/Spatial:
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Appreciates and produces music — is a discriminating listener.
Thinks in sounds, rhythms, and patterns.
Sings and drums to him or herself.
Thinks in pictures, remembers with vivid mental images.
Perceives the visual and represents spatial information graphically.
Controls body movements and handles objects with skill.
Spends free time drawing, using building blocks, or daydreaming.
Bodily/Kinesthetic
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Processes knowledge through sensations in the body.
Expresses him or herself through movement.
Has good eye-hand coordination and balance.
Howard Gardner (1943-
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Multiple Intelligences Theory
Eight innate “intelligences” of learning.
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Interpersonal
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Intrapersonal
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Relates to others and understands other’s feelings and intentions.
Detects differences among people.
Likes to maintain peace and have everyone cooperate.
Reflects on oneself and is aware of one’s inner state of being.
Self-motivated and understands his/her role in relation to others.
Understands one’s emotions can direct one’s behavior.
Naturalist
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Advocates or practices naturalism — and recognizes dangerous species and
categorizes new and different organisms.
Identifies manmade species (“artificial taxonomies”) such as wearing
apparel or cars.
Related Activities
Complete one of the following activities:
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Study one theorist and present your findings to the class
pretending YOU are that theorist.
In a group of 3 or more, work with and observe young children
(at daycare or playschool). Based on your observations:
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Determine which theories your group feels are most “valid”.
OR come up with your own theory about child behavior.
View a movie about parent-child relationships and write a
review — include how the theories apply to the story.
Class Activity:
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Tape an index card with the name of a theorist and their theory on
the back of each student.
Students then ask questions that can be answered “yes” or “no” to
try to guess which theorist is on their card.
Who am I? - Theorists Quiz
Name each of the following theorists:
1. My theory states that human needs must be met at
more basic levels before they move up to more
complex levels.
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2. My theory states that children learn cognitively at
four distinct levels.
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3. My theory says that there are numerous distinct
forms of intelligence that everyone possesses to
some degree.
Who am I? - Theorists Quiz
Name each of the following theorists:
4. My theory lists stages people travel
through during their entire lifetime.
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5. I believed that freedom for children enables them
to do things independently.
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6. My theory about moral decisions goes through
stages ending with the one when people make
decisions based on what is morally right or wrong.
Web Resources
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Here are some suggested web sites
for additional information on child and
parenting development:
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http://www.zerotothree.org/
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http://npen.crc.uiuc.edu/
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National Parenting Education Network
http://www.pathfinder.com/ParentTime/
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Zero to Three National Center for Infants, Toddlers and Families
Parent time
http://www.hec.ohip-state.edu/famlife/nnfr/pfp/
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Partners for Parenting database
Please note that web sites are constantly changing and being updated. You may need to revise this list.