Transcript Slides: Chapter 4: Larning and Reinforcement

Chapter 4
Fostering Learning and Reinforcement

Overview of Learning Theories

Learning Through Rewards and Punishments*

Contingencies of Reinforcement*

Schedules of Reinforcement*

Social Learning Theory

Case: Henry Butts Oldsmobile
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Nature of Learning


Learning is a relatively permanent change in
knowledge or observable behavior that results from
practice or experience.
Importance of Learning to OB* [Not in Text]
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Most organizational behavior is learned (remember that
only 2-12% of behavior is directly linked to personality)
By controlling the situation, a manager can influence
behavior/performance
The manager is held accountable for the performance of
his/her subordinates
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Overview of the Three Types of Learning

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Classical Conditioning: The learning of
“involuntary,” reflexive behavior, such as
emotional reactions
Operant Conditioning: The learning of
voluntary, goal-directed behavior through the
direct experience of consequences
Social Learning: The learning of voluntary, goaldirected behavior through observation and
imitation of others
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Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned
stimulus
(food)
Conditioned
stimulus
(metronome)
Reflex
response
(salivation)
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Examples of Operant Behaviors
and Their Consequences
BEHAVIORS
CONSEQUENCES
The Individual

works and
is paid.

is late to work and
is docked pay.

enters a restaurant and
eats.

enters a football stadium and
watches a football game.

enters a grocery store and
buys food.
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Examples of the Three Types of Learning:
Which Example Illustrates Each Type?
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After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker
sees a coworker fired for excessive tardiness, resulting in
increased attention to arriving on time
After a tightening in policy regarding lateness, a worker
receives a written reprimand for being late twice in one
month, resulting in increased attention to arriving on time
After witnessing a coworker’s accidental loss of several
fingers in a machinery accident, a worker experiences
anxiety when operating the same piece of machinery
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Contingency of Reinforcement*


Definition: The relationship between a behavior and the
preceding and following environmental events that
influence that behavior
Basic Components:
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Antecedent -- the stimulus that precedes the behavior
Behavior -- the behavior emitted in response to the stimulus
Consequence -- the positive or negative consequence of the
behavior
Important Note: Managers can often control the
contingencies of reinforcement influencing their
subordinate’s behavior, and thereby, the behavior itself
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Example of Contingent Reinforcement
NO
Manager and
employee
set goal
Manager is silent or
reprimands employee
Does employee
achieve goal?
Manager compliments
employee for
YES accomplishment
Antecedent
(precedes the
behavior)
Employee
Task
Behavior
Consequences Reinforcement
(result of the Contingent
behavior)
on Consequence
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Categories of Reinforcers

All reinforcers fall into one of two categories:

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Primary Reinforcers -- Based upon the satisfaction of
physiological needs, such as food, water, air, sex, escape
from pain, etc. (Note that the text defines this as: “an
event for which the individual already knows the
value.”)
Secondary Reinforcers -- Learned reinforcers; the text
defines this as “an event that once had neutral value but
has taken on some positive or negative value for an
individual because of past experience.”
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Types of Contingencies of Reinforcement*
Event is Added
Event is Removed
(best to use)
Pleasant
Event
Unpleasant
Event
Positive
reinforcement
(increases behavior)
Punishment
(decreases behavior)
(worst to use)
Omission
(decreases behavior)
Negative
reinforcement
(increases behavior)
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Rewards Used by Organizations
MATERIAL REWARDS
Pay
Pay raises
Stock options
Profit sharing
Deferred compensation
Bonuses/bonus plans
Incentive plans
Expense accounts
SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS
Company automobiles
Health insurance plans
Pension contributions
Vacation and sick leave
Recreation facilities
Child care support
Club privileges
Parental leave
SOCIAL/INTERPERSONAL REWARDS
Praise
Developmental feedback
Smiles, pats on the back, and
other nonverbal signals
Requests for suggestions
Invitations to coffee or lunch
Wall plaques
REWARDS FROM
THE TASK
Sense of achievement
Jobs with more responsibility
Job autonomy/self-direction
Performing important tasks
STATUS SYMBOLS
Corner offices
Offices with windows
Carpeting
Drapes
Paintings
Watches
Rings
Private restrooms
SELF-ADMINISTERED
REWARDS
Self-congratulation
Self-recognition
Self-praise
Self-development through
expanded knowledge/skills
Greater sense of self-worth
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Negative Reinforcement*
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Definition: An unpleasant event is occurring which can be
removed by emitting the desired behavior
Differs from punishment, but may result from the fear of
punishment
Two types are identified:
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Escape Learning: An unpleasant event occurs until the employee
emits an “escape response” to terminate it
Avoidance Learning: An employee prevents an unpleasant event
from occurring by emitting the proper behavior [Not in Text]
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Potential Negative Effects of Punishment*
Recurrence
of undesirable
employee behavior
Undesirable
emotional reaction
Antecedent
Undesirable
employee
behavior
Punishment
by
manager
But
Short-term
leads
to
decrease in
frequency long-term
of
undesirable
employee
behavior
Aggressive,
disruptive
behavior
Apathetic,
noncreative
performance
Fear of
manager
Which tends
to reinforce
High turnover
and absenteeism
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Punishment and Interpersonal Relations*
[Not in Text]

The inappropriate use of punishment increases
with:

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Anger and/or frustration on the part of the manager
Inadequate interpersonal communication
In such cases, this inappropriate punishment
creates long term interpersonal problems, by:

Reducing trust
 Stifling motivation
 Undermining and/or destroying relationships
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How to Make Punishment Effective
Managers should:
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Use the principles of contingent punishment, immediate
punishment, and punishment size
Praise in public, punish in private
Develop alternative desired behavior
Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events
Use “positive discipline” (i.e., change behavior through
reasoning, with an emphasis on personal responsibility or
“self control,” rather than by imposing increasingly severe
punishments)
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Guidelines for Using
Contingencies of Reinforcement
Managers should:
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Not reward all employees the same (i.e., take individual
differences into account to reward employees with
consequences that they personally value, within the
constraints of perceived equity)
Consider consequences of both actions and non-actions
Make employees aware of what behavior will be
reinforced (and then be sure to reinforce it uniformly)
Let employees know what they are doing wrong
Not punish in front of others
Make their response equal to workers’ behavior
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Schedules of Reinforcement*
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Definition: The determination of when reinforcers are
applied; after every response or only after some responses
Two general categories of schedule are:
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
Continuous Reinforcement: Every behavior is reinforced; the
simplest schedule
Intermittent Reinforcement: Only some behaviors are reinforced;
four types are identified in the text:
–
–
–
–
Fixed Interval: based on a fixed time interval
Fixed Ratio: based on a fixed number of responses
Variable Interval: based on a variable time interval
Variable Ratio: based on a variable number of responses
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Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement
FORM OF
REWARD
INFLUENCE ON
PERFORMANCE
Fixed interval
Reward on fixed
time basis
Leads to average
and irregular
performance
Fast extinction of
behavior
Fixed ratio
Reward tied to
specific number of
responses
Leads quickly to
very high and
stable
performance
Moderately fast
extinction of
behavior
Variable interval
Reward given after
varying periods of
time
Leads to
moderately high
and stable
performance
Slow extinction of
behavior
Variable ratio
Reward given for
some behaviors
Leads to very high
performance
Very slow
extinction of
behavior
SCHEDULE
EFFECTS ON
BEHAVIOR
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Social Learning Theory


Learning viewed as knowledge acquisition through
the mental processing of information
Individuals learn voluntary behaviors by observing
the behavior/consequences of others, cognitively
processing that information, and then imitating, or
not repeating, that behavior
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Self-Efficacy
Self-Control
Vicarious Learning
Forethought
Symbolizing
Five Dimensions of
Social Learning Theory
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Explanation of the
Five Dimensions of Social Learning Theory
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People use symbols as cognitive models that serve to guide
their behavior
People use forethought to anticipate, plan, and guide their
behaviors and actions
People learn vicariously (indirectly) by observing the
behavior of others and the real or imagined consequences
of those behaviors
People exhibit self-control by taking personal responsibility
to learn new behavior even though there is no external
pressure to do so
People have differing levels of self-efficacy, which
differentially influences their learning and behavior
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Self-Efficacy*
Definition: Refers to the individual’s confidence in
their ability to perform a specific task in a specific
situation
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Varies by people and tasks
Strongly influences learning, with higher levels
facilitating learning by enhancing goal setting, effort,
and persistence toward success
Managers can and should influence subordinate’s selfefficacy levels
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Self-Efficacy at Work
HIGH
Past
Accomplishments
Performance
of Others
Emotional
State
“I know I can do the job
and have outstanding
quality”
Self-efficacy
“I don’t think I can do the
job on time and have
outstanding quality”
 Set goals
 Preserve/practice
 Creatively solve
problems
 Visualize success
 Learn from failure
LOW
 Avoid difficult tasks
 Think of excuses
for failing
 Develop low
aspirations
 Quit
 Blame setbacks on
lack of ability or luck
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How Managers Can Apply
Social Learning Theory
Managers should:
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Identify behaviors that lead to improved performance
Select an appropriate model
Make sure that employees have requisite skills
Create a positive learning situation
Provide positive consequences for successful
performance (i.e., reinforcement)
Develop organizational support for new behaviors
(i.e., maintain proper contingencies of reinforcement)
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Henry Butts Oldsmobile Case Questions
1. How effective is Henry Butts’ management strategy?
2. Which component of this strategy is now illegal? What is
used in its place?
3. Identify or speculate on examples in the case of the
following concepts from the chapter:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Operant learning; social learning
Secondary reinforcement
Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment
Escape or avoidance learning
Continuous, fixed ratio, and fixed or variable interval
reinforcement schedules
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