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Models of Abnormality
Chapter 3
Slides & Handouts by Karen Clay Rhines, Ph.D.
American Public University System
Comer, Abnormal Psychology, 8e, DSM-5 Update
Models of Abnormality
In science, the perspectives used to explain
events are known as models or paradigms
Each model spells out basic assumptions, gives order
to the field under study, and sets guidelines for
investigation
Models influence what investigators observe, the
questions they ask, the information they seek, and
how they interpret this information
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Models of Abnormality
Until recently, clinical scientists of a given place
and time tended to agree on a single model of
abnormality – a model greatly influenced by the
beliefs of their culture
Today several models are used to explain and
treat abnormal functioning
Sometimes in conflict, each model focuses on one
aspect of human functioning and no single model can
explain all aspects of abnormality
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The Biological Model
Adopts a medical perspective
Main focus is that psychological
abnormality is an illness brought about by
malfunctioning parts of the organism
Typically point to problems in brain anatomy
or brain chemistry
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?
Brain anatomy
The brain is composed of ~100 billion nerve
cells (called neurons) and thousands of billions
of support cells (called glia)
Within the brain, large groups of neurons form
distinct areas called brain regions
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?
Brain anatomy and abnormal behavior
Clinical researchers have discovered
connections between certain psychological
disorders and problems in specific brain areas
Example: Huntington’s disease and basal ganglia
and cortex
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?
Brain chemistry
Information is communicated throughout the
brain in the form of electrical impulses that
travel from one neuron to one or more others
An impulse is first received by a neuron’s
dendrites, travels down the axon, and is
transmitted through the nerve endings to
other neurons
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?
Brain chemistry
Neurons do not actually touch each other; they are
separated by a space (the synapse), across which a
message moves
When an electrical impulse reaches a nerve ending,
the ending is stimulated to release a chemical, called
a neurotransmitter (NT), that travels across the
synaptic space to receptors on the dendrites of
neighboring neurons
Some NTs tell receiving neurons to “fire;” other NTs tell
receiving neurons to stop firing
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?
Brain chemistry and abnormal behavior
Researchers have identified dozens of NTs
Examples: serotonin, dopamine, and GABA
Studies indicate that abnormal activity in
certain NTs can lead to specific mental
disorders
For example: depression has been linked to low
activity of serotonin and norepinephrine
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?
Brain chemistry and abnormal behavior
Additionally, researchers have learned that mental
disorders are sometimes related to abnormal chemical
activity in the endocrine system
Endocrine glands release hormones which propel body
organs into action
Abnormal secretions have been linked to psychological
disorders
Example: Cortisol release is related to anxiety and mood
disorders
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Sources of Biological
Abnormalities – Genetics
Abnormalities in brain anatomy or chemistry are
sometimes the result of genetic inheritance
Each cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, each with numerous genes that control
the characteristics and traits a person inherits
Studies suggest that inheritance plays a part in mood
disorders, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders
Appears that in most cases several genes combine to produce
our actions and reactions
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Sources of Biological
Abnormalities – Genetics
Genes that contribute to mental disorders
are viewed as unfortunate occurrences:
May be mutations
May be inherited after a mutation in the family
line
May be the result of normal evolutionary
principles
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Sources of Biological
Abnormalities – Evolution
Evolutionary theorists argue that human
reactions and the genes responsible for them
have survived over the course of time because
they have helped individuals thrive and adapt
Example: The fear response
In today’s world, however, those genes and
reactions may not be so adapative
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Sources of Biological
Abnormalities – Evolution
This model has been criticized and remains
controversial, yet it receives considerable
attention
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Sources of Biological
Abnormalities – Viral Infections
Another possible source of abnormal brain
structure or biochemical dysfunction is viral
infections
Example: Schizophrenia and prenatal viral
exposure
Interest in viral explanations of psychological
disorders has been growing in the past decade
Example: Anxiety and mood disorders
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Biological Treatments
Biological practitioners attempt to pinpoint
the physical source of dysfunction to
determine the course of treatment
Three types of biological treatment:
Drug therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Psychosurgery
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Biological Treatments
Drug therapy:
1950s = advent of psychotropic medications
Greatly changed the outlook for a number of mental disorders
Four major drug groups:
Antianxiety drugs (anxiolytics; minor tranquilizers)
Antidepressant drugs
Antibipolar drugs (mood stabilizers)
Antipsychotic drugs
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Biological Treatments
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT):
Used primarily for depression, particularly
when drugs and other therapies have failed
This treatment is used on tens of thousands of
depressed persons annually
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Biological Treatments
Psychosurgery (or neurosurgery):
Historical roots in trephination
1930s = first lobotomy
Much more precise today than in the past
Considered experimental and used only in
extreme cases
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Assessing the
Biological Model
Strengths:
Enjoys considerable
respect in the field
Constantly produces
valuable new
information
Treatments bring great
relief
Weaknesses:
Can limit, rather than
enhance, our
understanding
Too simplistic
Treatments produce
significant undesirable
(negative) effects
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The Psychodynamic Model
Oldest and most famous psychological model
Based on belief that a person’s behavior (whether normal
or abnormal) is determined largely by underlying
dynamic - that is, interacting - psychological forces of
which she or he is not consciously aware
Abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among these forces
Father of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic
therapy:
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
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How Did Freud Explain
Normal and Abnormal Functioning?
Shaped by three unconscious forces:
1.
2.
Id – guided by the Pleasure Principle
Instinctual needs, drives, and impulses
Sexual; fueled by libido (sexual energy)
Ego – guided by the Reality Principle
Seeks gratification, but guides us to know when we can and
cannot express our wishes
Ego defense mechanisms protect us from anxiety
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How Did Freud Explain
Normal and Abnormal Functioning?
Caused by three UNCONSCIOUS forces:
3.
Superego – guided by the Morality Principle
Conscience; unconsciously adopted from our parents
These three parts of the personality are often in
some degree of conflict
A healthy personality is one in which an effective
working relationship exists among the three forces
If the id, ego, and superego are in excessive conflict,
the person’s behavior may show signs of dysfunction
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How Did Freud Explain
Normal and Abnormal Functioning?
Developmental stages
Freud proposed that at each stage of development new
events and pressures require adjustment in the id, ego,
and superego
If successful → personal growth
If unsuccessful → fixation at an early developmental stage,
leading to psychological abnormality
Because parents are the key figures in early life, they are often
seen as the cause of improper development
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How Did Freud Explain
Normal and Abnormal Functioning?
Developmental stages
Oral (0 to 18 months of age)
Anal (18 months to 3 years of age)
Phallic (3 to 5 years of age)
Latency (5 to 12 years of age)
Genital (12 years of age to adulthood)
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How Do Other Psychodynamic
Explanations Differ from Freud’s?
Although new theories depart from Freud’s ideas
in important ways, each retains the belief that
human functioning is shaped by dynamic
(interacting) forces:
Ego theorists
Self theorists
Emphasize the role of the ego; consider it independent and
powerful
Emphasize the unified personality
Object-relations theorists
Emphasize the human need for relationships, especially
between children and caregivers
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Psychodynamic Therapies
Range from Freudian psychoanalysis to
modern therapies
All seek to uncover past trauma and inner
conflicts
Therapist acts as a “subtle guide”
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Psychodynamic Therapies
Utilize various techniques:
Free association
Therapist interpretation
Resistance
Transference
Dream interpretation
Catharsis
Working through
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Psychodynamic Therapies
Contemporary trends:
Short-term psychodynamic therapies
Relational psychoanalytic therapy
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Assessing the
Psychodynamic Model
Strengths:
First to recognize
importance of psychological
theories and treatment
Saw abnormal functioning
as rooted in the same
processes as normal
functioning
Weaknesses:
Unsupported ideas;
difficult to research
Non-observable
Inaccessible to human
subject (unconscious)
First to apply theory and
techniques systematically to
treatment – monumental
impact on the field
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The Behavioral Model
Like psychodynamic theorists, behavioral
theorists believe that our actions are
determined largely by our experiences in
life
Concentrates wholly on behaviors and
environmental factors
Bases explanations and treatments on
principles of learning
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The Behavioral Model
The model began in laboratories where
conditioning studies were conducted
Several forms of conditioning:
Operant conditioning
Modeling
Classical conditioning
All may produce normal or abnormal behavior
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How Do Behaviorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
Operant conditioning
Humans and animals learn to behave in certain
ways as a result of receiving rewards whenever
they do so
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How Do Behaviorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
Modeling
Individuals learn responses by observing and
repeating behavior
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How Do Behaviorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
Classical conditioning
Learning by temporal association
Father of classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov (1849 –
1936)
When two events repeatedly occur close together in time, they
become fused in a person’s mind; before long, the person
responds in the same way to both events
Classic study using dogs and meat powder
Explains many familiar behaviors (both normal and
abnormal)
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Classical Conditioning
US
UR
Meat
Salivate
US
UR
Meat
+
Tone
Salivate
CS
CR
Tone
Salivate
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Behavioral Therapies
Aim to identify the behaviors that are
causing problems and replace them with
more appropriate ones
May use classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, or modeling
Therapist is “teacher” rather than healer
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Behavioral Therapies
Classical conditioning treatments may be
used to change abnormal reactions to
particular stimuli
Example: systematic desensitization for phobia
Step-by-step procedure
Learn relaxation skills
Construct a fear hierarchy
Confront feared situations
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Assessing the Behavioral Model
Strengths:
Powerful force in the
field
Can be tested in the
laboratory
Significant research
support for behavioral
therapies
Weaknesses:
No evidence that
symptoms are
ordinarily acquired
through conditioning
Behavior therapy is
limited
Too simplistic
New focus on
self-efficacy, social
cognition, and cognitivebehavioral theories
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The Cognitive Model
This model proposes that we can best understand
abnormal functioning by looking at cognitive
processes – the center of behaviors, thoughts, and
emotions
Argues that clinicians must ask questions about
assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts of a client
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How Do Cognitive Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
Abnormal functioning can result from
several kinds of cognitive problems:
Faulty assumptions and attitudes
Illogical thinking processes
Example: overgeneralization
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Cognitive Therapies
People can overcome their problems by
developing new ways of thinking
Main model: Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
The goal of therapy is to help clients recognize and
restructure their thinking
Therapists also guide clients to challenge their dysfunctional
thoughts, try out new interpretations, and apply new ways of
thinking in their daily lives
Widely used in treating depression
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Assessing the
Cognitive Model
Strengths:
Very broad appeal
Clinically useful and
effective
Focuses on a uniquely
human process
Theories lend themselves to
research
Therapies effective in
treating several disorders
Weaknesses:
Precise role of cognition in
abnormality has yet to be
determined
Therapies do not help
everyone
Some changes may not be
possible to achieve
In response, a new wave of
therapies has emerged,
including Acceptance and
Commitment Therapy and
mindfulness-based techniques
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The Humanistic-Existential
Model
Combination model
The humanist view
Emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and
constructive; focus on drive to self-actualize
through honest recognition of strengths and
weaknesses
The existentialist view
Emphasis on self-determination, choice, and
individual responsibility; focus on authenticity
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Rogers’ Humanistic
Theory and Therapy
Believes in the basic human need for unconditional positive regard
If received, leads to unconditional self-regard
If not, leads to “conditions of worth”
Incapable of self-actualization because of distortion – do not know
what they really need, etc.
Rogers’ “client-centered” therapy
Therapist creates a supportive climate
Unconditional positive regard
Accurate empathy
Genuineness
Little research support but positive impact on clinical practice
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Gestalt Theory and Therapy
Humanistic approach
Developed by Fritz Perls
Goal is to guide clients toward self-recognition
through challenge and frustration
Techniques:
Skillful frustration
Role playing
Rules, including “Here and Now” and “I” language
Little research support
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Spiritual Views and
Interventions
For most of the twentieth century, clinical
scientists viewed religion as a negative—or at
best neutral—factor in mental health
This historical alienation between the clinical
field and religion seems to be ending
Researchers have learned that spirituality can,
in fact, be of psychological benefit to people
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Existential Theories and Therapy
Belief that psychological dysfunction is caused
by self-deception; people hide from life’s
responsibilities and fail to recognize that it is
up to them to give meaning to their lives
In therapy, people are encouraged to accept
personal responsibility for their problems
Goals more important than technique
Great emphasis placed on client-therapist
relationship
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Existential Theories and Therapy
Existential therapists do not believe that
experimental methods can adequately test
the effectiveness of their treatments; as a
result, little controlled research has been
conducted
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Assessing the HumanisticExistential Model
Strengths:
Weaknesses:
Taps into domains
missing from other
theories
Emphasizes the
individual
Optimistic
Emphasizes health
Focuses on abstract
issues
Difficult to research
Weakened by
disapproval of
scientific approach
Changing somewhat
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The Sociocultural Models
Argue that abnormal behavior is best
understood in light of the social and
cultural forces that influence an individual
Address norms and roles in society
Comprised of two major perspectives:
Family-Social perspective
Multicultural perspective
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How Do Family-Social Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
Proponents of this model argue that
theorists should concentrate on forces that
operate directly on an individual,
including:
Social labels and roles
Diagnostic labels (example: Rosenhan study)
Social connections and supports
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How Do Family-Social Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
Focus on:
Family structure and communication
Family systems theory argues that abnormal
functioning within a family leads to abnormal
behavior (insane behavior becomes sane in an
insane environment)
Examples: enmeshed, disengaged structures
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Family-Social Treatments
This perspective has helped spur the
growth of several treatment approaches,
including:
Group therapy
Family therapy
Couple therapy
Community treatment
Includes prevention work
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How Do Multicultural Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
Culture refers to the set of values, attitudes,
beliefs, history, and behaviors shared by a group
of people and communicated from one
generation to the next
The multicultural, or culturally diverse, perspective has
emerged as a growing field of study
Multicultural psychologists seek to understand how
culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and similar factors
affect behavior and thought, as well as how people of
different cultures, races, and genders differ
psychologically
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How Do Multicultural Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
The model holds that an individual’s behavior is
best understood when examined in the light of that
individual’s unique cultural context
They also have noticed that the prejudice and
discrimination faced by many minority groups may
contribute to certain forms of abnormal
functioning
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Multicultural Treatments
Studies have found that members of ethnic
and racial minority groups tend to show
less improvement in clinical treatment
than members of majority groups
Two features of treatment can increase a
therapist’s effectiveness with minority clients:
Greater sensitivity to cultural issues
Inclusion of cultural models in treatment, especially
in therapies for children and adolescents
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Multicultural Treatments
Given such findings, some clinicians have
developed culture-sensitive therapies as
well as gender-sensitive, or feminist,
therapies
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Assessing the
Sociocultural Models
Strengths:
Added greatly to the
clinical understanding
and treatment of
abnormality
Increased awareness of
clinical and social roles
Weaknesses:
Research is difficult to
interpret
Correlation causation
Model unable to predict
abnormality in specific
individuals
Clinically successful
when other treatments
have failed
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Integration of the Models
Today’s leading models vary widely and
none of the models has proved consistently
superior
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Comparing the Models
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Integration of the Models
A growing number of clinicians favor
explanations of abnormal behavior that
consider more than one cause at a time
These are sometimes called biopsychosocial
theories
Abnormality results from the interaction of genetic,
biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral,
cognitive, social, and societal influences
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Integration of the Models
Some biopsychosocial theorists favor a
diathesis-stress approach
Diathesis = predisposition (bio, psycho, or social)
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Integration of the Models
Integrative therapists are often called
“eclectic” – taking the strengths from each
model and using them in combination
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Theoretical Orientations of
Today’s Clinical Psychologists
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Integration of the Models
Integrative therapists are often called
“_______________” – taking the strengths
from each model and using them in
combination
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