Transcript The Age of Jackson

Unit 4 Topics
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Jackson’s Presidency
Ante Bellum Industrialization
Reform Movements of the 1820s
Movement West in the 1840s
• Chapters 13,14,15,17
The Age of Jackson
Was it the age of the Common Man
or
the age of the Dictatorship of Andrew
Jackson (King Andrew 1st)?
Presidential Election of 1828
• Jackson won 56% of the popular vote and 178 to 83
(Adams) of the Electoral Votes – no doubts this time: had
a majority of Electoral votes
• J. Q. Adams won New Eng only; Jackson won everywhere
else.
• “Jacksonians” hailed their victory as just as important as
the victory of Jefferson in 1800..(the Revolution of 1828)
– “Once again the forces of privilege had been ejected from
Washington. Once again, a champion of Democracy would
occupy the White House and restore liberty to society and the
economy. America would now enjoy “the era of the common
man”………(Rhetoric?)
Why did Jackson win the Presidential Election of 1828?
• 1. Adams: Personality
• Aloof, austere, closeted thinker (like his father) rather than
a politician: irritable, sarcastic, tactless
• Great record in statecraft, “one of the most successful
secretaries of state”, yet one of the least successful
Presidents
• “Did not possess many of the usual arts of the politician
and scorned those who did: in the dawning age of
backslapping and baby-kissing democracy, the cold-fish
Adams, could hardly hope for success at the polls”
(chosen by House of Reps, 1824 – not the popular choice.)
Why did Jackson win the Presidential Election of 1828?
• 2. Adams: Politics
• Minority President (Federalist), yet refused to win over
support with Spoils System, only replaced 12 govt.
officeholders…no real support base, no Federalist party
of any significance
• Strong Nationalistic views, “when the nation was turning
from post-Ghent nationalism back to states rights and
sectionalism” he “swam against the tide”: supported
American System, national university, astronomical
observatory, at a time when govt. expenditure, tariffs,
federal gov. interference in states issues (roads) were
becoming unpopular as Era of Good Feelings ended
Why did Jackson win the Presidential Election of 1828?
• His unpopular policies
– Wanted to slow down sale of western land and expansion West
(upset South and West)
– Supported the Cherokee Indians against the State of Georgia which
was trying to evict them and make land available to white settlers
– Supported the Tariff of 1828, the Tariff of Abominations – up to
45% on some imports; by now the South and West had become
anti-Tariff….Calhoun wrote the “South Carolina Exposition”
(concealed his authorship) in objection – it was unjust and
unconstitutional) proposing nullification (opposed to such a high
tariff, but also to protect the institution of slavery…the tariff was
the issue on which to make a strong stand on principle against all
federal encroachments on states rights…
Why did Jackson win the Presidential Election of 1828?
• 3. Jackson’s Successful 4 year long Campaign
• Portrayed himself as the victim of “Corrupt Bargain”,
denouncing Adams as a “corrupt aristocrat” – his election
had defied ‘the will of the people”
• Presented himself by comparison as a rough-hewn
frontiersman of humble origins – orphaned at an early age
(hyperbole – lived in a huge plantation, the Hermitage, in
Tennessee, and owned slaves), a champion of the Common
Man: won support of “dirt farmers” and urban laborers
(radical NY workers = locofocos) as well as yeomen
farmers
• Mudslinging
• National Republicans charged that;
– Jackson’s mother was a prostitute and his wife, Rachel, an
adulteress (technicality – paperwork not properly filed – died
a month after the election of 1828)
– Printed black bordered shaped like coffins, recounting his
numerous duels (had two bullets still in his chest) and brawls,
and trumpeting his hanging of six mutinous militiamen
• Democrats accused Adams of:
– Purchasing gaming tables and gambling furniture of the white
house (actually bought a billiard table and a set of chessmen
for his own use and with his own money)
– Criticized for the large sums of money he had received over
the years in federal salary – thought it was well earned
– Accused of having procured a servant girl “for the lust of the
Russian prince – in short of having served as a pimp.”
• Portrayed himself as a supporter of States Rights, of
South and West: “took advantage of shift from
nationalism to states rights, swam with the tide”
• Took advantage of his military heroics; victory over
Native Americans (Creek Indians at Horseshoe Bend)
over the British at New Orleans, and over the Spanish
in Florida – known as Old Hickory by his troops for his
stubbornness and determination
• Andrew Jackson During the Battle of New Orleans, illustration by
Frederick Coffay Yohn, c. 1922
Why did Jackson win the Presidential Election of 1828?
• 4. Greater Voter Participation / Increased
Electioneering / Democratic Political Machine
• Only 25% of voters voted in 1824
• 56% of voters voted in 1828 (78% by 1840) – higher
turnout was to his advantage
• Higher turn out due to the excitement, electioneering,
intense campaigning of the previous 4 yrs; the Democrats
also created excitement: modern style get-out-the-votecampaign, involving banners, badges, parades, barbecues,
free drinks, and baby-kissing, slogans such as “Shall the
People Rule”
• People responded and came out to vote
• Some states introduced written / secret ballots for the
first time, replacing “voice voting”, which
encouraged more people to vote
• Also, the electorate had increased since 1824, due to
the elimination or lowering of property qualifications
Jackson as President
• Focus Questions
• Was it really the “Age of the Common Man”?
• How different was his Presidency from that of Adams?
What changes did he introduce?
• What was “Jacksonian Democracy”?
• Was he more of a Dictator than a Democrat?
Jackson as President
• His Political Philosophy
• More emphasis on the interest of the / issues of the
“common man” than the elite…land, tariffs, taxes,
representation
• End Corruption in Fed. Govt. (BUS) / East
• Expansion of Democracy, more opportunities in politics /
govt. for the common people – a Rotation of Office
• Reduction in big govt. / decentralization of power from
Washington; suspicious of Federal Gov.
• But preservation of the Union
• Believed in a strong Executive Branch, expansion of power
of Presidency –President represented the people more so
than the other two branches (used presidential veto 12
times / all previous 6 Presidents combined used 10 vetoes King Andrew?)
Jackson as President
• Inauguration;
• So called “inaugural brawl”?
• 30,000 approx. excited people came to celebrate their
hero’s inauguration (“Hickories”, “Hickoryites,”
“nobodies”); Exuberance
• Exaggerated: labeled by his opponents as the inauguration
of “King Mob”, as resembling the mob of the French
Revolution…..fears?
• Showed that ordinary people (common man) identified
with him; he was their president, first non-aristocrat in the
office….wanted to see his inauguration, felt they were part
of his success
Jackson as President
• Spoils System;
• Hoped to introduce a Rotation of Office – allowing more people /
more “common people,” to experience working for the Govt.
• But moved cautiously; over the next 8 yrs he removed only about
one fifth of federal officeholders, many in their 80s (unlike
Jefferson – but most were already Democratic-Reps/Democrats,
supported him) –but yet he was still criticized, with some truth, for
some illiterates, incompetents, and some crooks (Samuel Swartwout
stole $1m from the treasury and left for England)
• Came to realize that “common people” didn’t have the education or
experience to hold these jobs…couldn’t rotate
• Really just replaced the old elite, with a new elite, of his own
associates
Jackson as President
• Despite the rhetoric, “Jacksonian Democracy” had limits:
not the age of the Common Man in terms of a “Rotation
of Office”
• Kitchen Cabinet
• Relied for advice on an informal group of friends and
family
• Included newspapers editors such as Amos Kendall, and
adopted son Andrew Jackson Donaldson
• Opponents criticized him for relying more on the advice
of his Kitchen Cabinet than his official Cabinet…(not
democratic…they were not elected) …common / normal
now
Jackson as President
• National Conventions;
• Democrats already used local and state nominating Conventions
• Now adopted National Nominating Conventions also (used in
1832 election, for first time, nominated Jackson to run for reelection) to choose candidates running for national office
• More Democratic than having party caucus (King Caucus)
choosing candidates for national office
• Inspired by the Anti-Masonic party (hated the secrecy of the
Masonic Society, and was anti-Jackson too – he was a Mason), the
first to introduce this system at national level
• But, again, though more democratic, there was no real transfer of
power to “the common people”.
• Delegates to National Conventions were rarely common men: were
usually well off, and they choose well of candidates (gov. by elite
on behalf of “masses”)
Jackson as President
• Jackson and States Rights: The Webster-Hayne
Debate, 1830.
• Northern senators proposed to slow down the sale of
Western Land
• South, West objected – this would deny them
opportunities
• Robert Hayne, South Carolina Senator: articulated Sth
and West position – wanted more land to be made
available for sale: but were now victims of the tyranny of
the North: South should Nullify tyrannical laws such as
this
• Daniel Webster, Senator for Mass, took up the argument
for the Union, Fed Gov. decision making.
• Became a debate about States Rights v National Power in
general. Webster intended his reply to be an answer to all
nullification challenges in the past
Jackson as President
• Webster’s Reply;
• Constitution was an agreement by the people to set up a
permanent supreme Fed. gov.
• within the structures of that gov. a majority must govern,
while respecting the rights of minorities.
• only the Supreme Court could decide on constitutionality
or unconstitutionality of new laws.
• there would be no union if each of the 24 states was
allowed to decide which laws it would and would not
(Nullify) accept
• Ended with "Liberty and Union, now and for ever, one and
inseparable".
• Webster’s speech had an enormous impact on Northern
public opinion. 40,000 copies of speech printed, and
excerpts included in school text books – influenced young
generation who would fight the Civil War
Jackson as President
• Jackson’s Position?
• People wondered what side Jackson would take: states
rights or Fed Gov. powers?
• Gave his answer during his toast at a Jefferson banquet
• Provoked by Calhoun (he and Jackson had split over
Peggy O’ Neal / John Eaton affair – his Sec. of War),
urged on by Van Buren
• Jackson proposed, "Our Federal Union - it must be
preserved." (Jackson supported states rights but within
the framework of the Constitution – no Nullification by
states)
• Calhoun's toast was "The Union - next to our liberty
most dear". But Jackson had stolen his thunder
• Jackson…moderate, not really a Revolution / Dictator
Jackson as President
• Tariffs, South Carolina, and Nullification Crisis
• Tariff of 1832 did not bring the relief from the Tariff of
1828 that the South had expected
• Lowered the 45% tariff (Abominations – Jacksonians had
pushed it high, unintentionally) to 35% - but not enough
• South Carolina / Calhoun again advocated nullification
(had resigned from Jackson’s cabinet and become Senator
for S.C)
• S.C. legislature also favored Nullification
Jackson as President
• Held a referendum to decide on the issue: voters approved of
nullification by 23,000 (“nullies” or nullifiers) to 17,000.(unionists)
• Then a State Convention also approved of Nullification, and as a
further act of defiance, the convention threatened to take S.
Carolina out of the Union if Washington attempted to collect the
customs duties by force
• Legislature then voted to Nullify the 1832 tariff and forbade the
collection of revenues in the State; and voted to make preparations
for military defense.
• Hayne was elected as their new Governor
• FIRST REAL TEST of the Union: SC had taken Nullification
further than Jefferson / Madison, and Federalists had in the past
Jackson as President
• Jackson’s Response:
• Not a die hard supporter of the Tariff, but was not going to tolerate
defiance or disunion.
• Publicly was moderate but Decisive (yet privately was outraged/
threatened to invade the sate and hang Calhoun and other nullifiers)
• Issued a blunt Nullification Proclamation, warning the people of S.C.
that this was treasonous: used explanation of Webster….majority
rule, nullification unconstitutional
• Offered support for loyal minority in S.C. Strengthened the Federal
forts in the state and sent Gen. Winfield Scott to Charlestown with a
small naval fleet
• Asked Congress to pass a Force Bill authorizing further use of army
and navy – to collect the tariffs
Jackson as President
• Hayne responded with a counter-proclamation – “the lines were
drawn”
• Yet, Calhoun was in a predicament; Jackson was determined and
not a single Southern state had come out in support of Nullification
/ S.C.
• S.C. was isolated: it could not hope to survive a showdown with
the Fed. Govt. But if Calhoun backed down, he might be ruined
politically
• Saved by Henry Clay - "Great Pacificator“; proposed a
compromise (1833) by which the tariff wd be lowered by 1% a
year over 8-10 yrs until by 1843 it reached 1816 levels (25%).
• The Compromise and the Force Bill were passed on the same day:
Jackson was satisfied
• Some accused him of Appeasement – of being too easy on
South….leading to Secession and Civil War later
• Calhoun claimed a victory? And unwilling to allow the Fed
gov to have the last word, S.C. voted to Nullify the Force
Bill…. a symbolic gesture of defiance (it wasn’t needed now)
• Calhoun learned that S.C. in the future could not succeed
alone. Spent next few yrs trying to build up a sense of
Southern solidarity so that if another confrontation should
arise S.C wd have more support from S and W states….. (in
the Civil War)
• Overcoming this crisis, preserving the Union – was it
Jackson’s greatest achievement ?....though the conflict had
been avoided, the issues had not been resolved….the nullies
and Union would clash again, and compromise would be
more elusive
Jackson as President
• States Rights and the Maysville Road Bill of 1830;
• Jackson opposed Nullification but he supported states
rights in many other areas.
• Vetoed laws he considered to exceed the powers of the
Fed Gov
• The Maysville Rd Bill was one of the most significant of
his 12 vetoes (King Andrew I)- it authorized the gov. to
buy stock in a private company building a road within the
State of Kentucky – would be a branch of the National
Road
Jackson as President
• Passed by Congress
• But because the road was within one state, Jackson felt
it was unfair to give the project Fed funds (also
involved using the elastic clause). Vetoed it.
• Yet he did approve of Fed gov spending on other roads
and other bridges (usually if several states benefited)...
Spent more than J.Q. Adams on such projects
Jackson as President
• Jackson and the Indian Removal.
• Wanted end to separate sovereignty / nation-like status
of Native Americans
• Must live under state jurisdiction / laws
• Must sell some of their lands to the states…much of it
was unused
• Should try to Assimilate, become Civilized
• Or they should either voluntarily move or be forced to
move West: Removal
• He believed they were ultimately racially inferior, so
Civilizing and Assimilation would more than likely be
impossible
Jackson as President
“I have the kindest feelings towards you but
circumstances that cannot be controlled, and which
are beyond the reach of human laws, render it
impossible that you can flourish in the midst of a
civilized community.”
• For Jackson the “Common Man” did not include
Native Americans (or African Slaves)
Jackson as President
• Helen Hunt Jackson, in A Century of Dishonor, argued that
Native Americans ultimately had no chance of surviving in
the East:
• If they resisted assimilation / seizure of their lands they
were overpowered / defeated in Battle: Fallen Timbers,
Tippecanoe
• If they signed Treaties handing over some of their land in
return for permanent ownership of the remainder, the
Treaties were broken later by the Fed. Govt. or the States
(“dishonor” – a century of broken promises)…Virginia
• If they tried to Assimilate, like the "5 civilized tribes" had
done - Cherokee, Creek, Seminole, Chickasaw, and
Choctaw – they were still persecuted, eventually, and had
their lands taken and then driven West
Jackson as President
• Cherokee Removal, 1838
• In Georgia, the Cherokee were one of the few remaining
tribes living on their own lands as a sovereign nation,
protected by a Treaty with the Fed. Gov.
• Had tried to become “Assimilated” or “Civilized”
(farming, settled, own written language, a formal written
constitution, schools, newspaper, judicial system,
Christianity): hoped to keep their lands by imitating
white society
• But: population increase / land hunger intensified in
1820's and 1830's, and discovery of gold on their lands
made survival almost impossible
Jackson as President
• State of Georgia demanded that the Cherokee accept state
authority, laws etc. and also sell land (J.Q. had defended
the Cherokee)
• Congress supported these demands and passed the Indian
Removal Act in 1830; Jackson supported it: its main terms:
– 1. All existing treaties with N/I be voided
– 2. No more recognition of Tribal sovereign rights: they
were under the jurisdiction of the states they lived in
– 3. Must sell land
– 4. To be moved West if they did not co-operate
• Most tribes sold out and moved West: but not the
Cherokee
Jackson as President
• Cherokee took their case to the Supreme Court: Marshall
refused to hear the case: Cherokee Nation v Georgia,
1831: it did not fall under original jurisdiction; Georgia
was pleased
• But Marshall ruled in favor of the Cherokee in 1832 in
another case, Worcester v Georgia: came by Appellate
Jurisdiction
• A new Georgia law required people entering Cherokee
territory to obtain permission from the governor
• Worcester, a missionary, traveled back and forth without
permission: accused of breaking the law: imprisoned
Jackson as President
• Marshall ruled that the Cherokee were a separate entity
(though not a nation), with property rights – the implication
was that their property could not be taken from them / and
could make decisions about who came on their lands /
property: he invalidated the new State Law.
• Fed Gov., Georgia, and Pres. Jackson, ignored Marshall’s
decision
• Jackson said: "Marshall has made his decision, let him
enforce it now if he can“ – defiance towards Judicial
Branch
• Georgia began to extend its control over the Cherokee
nation and proceeded to seize and distribute their land and
move them West.
Jackson as President
• Other southern states - Alabama, Miss, N.C,
Tennessee – did the same, removing the Choctaws,
Chickasaws, Cherokee, Seminole and Creeks: were
moved on to Oklahoma
• The Cherokee in Georgia became divided into 2 factions
• One, the National Party, led by John Ross, favored
resistance: rep. a majority (17,000)
• The other, the Treaty Party, led by Major Ridge, favored
accepting reality, cutting the best deal possible and
moving West: rep a minority (1,000)
• Jackson and Georgia negotiated only with the Treaty Party:
agreed to Relocation Treaty of 1836 / Treaty of Echota.
They would move to Oklahoma by 1838 and get $5m, plus
land in return
• But majority refused to move: When the deadline passed,
Federal troops were sent to forcefully remove them
• Forced marched over 1,000 miles to Oklahoma. 4,000 died
from malnutrition, exposure, cholera, and harsh treatment
by the troops. Their grueling trek became know as the
Trail of Tears.
• The Trail of Tears, oil on canvas by Robert Lindneux,
• Overall 100,000 Native Ams were moved to
reservations in the West / Oklahoma – the new Bureau
of Indian Affairs was to administer relations with the
Indians.
• But these Treaties would also later be broken (H. H.
Jackson / A Century of Dishonor).. The so-called “new
permanent frontier” lasted only 15 years
• Trail of Tears took place under Van Buren – but assess
Jackson’s accountability…
Jackson as President
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Jackson and the BUS; the Bank War:
In spite of the many advantages of the BUS, Jackson was
not in favor of it
Felt that it was elitist and monopolistic; shareholders
(some were foreigners) made huge profits, from having
Fed. Govt. funds deposited
Felt it was pro-East / anti-West: responsible for the
Crisis of 1819 (personal losses)
Felt it was corrupt: gave low interest loans to 50
politicians and newspaper editors to get support for a
new charter
Personal dislike for Chairman Biddle (Czar Nicholas 1st)
Jackson as President
• And it employed his rivals, Senators Clay and Webster, as
legal advisors
• But, he was willing to tolerate it
• Until, Clay and Webster advised Biddle, to apply to
Congress for a new Charter in 1832, 4 yrs ahead of the
expiration of the old one, to make its renewal a divisive
issue in the upcoming Pres Election
• Hoped to hurt Jackson’s re-election chances; if he
supported it he would lose votes in the S and W, if he
opposed it he would lose votes in the N
• The re-charter was a major issue in the Pres El of 1832, as
its supporters hoped – but Jackson was re-elected
• Congress passed the re-charter bill but Jackson vetoed it;
defiant – Bank had challenged him – he would win
• Jackson won overwhelmingly - 55% of popular vote and
219 Electoral votes to Clay's 49
• He took his success as an indication of approval for his
opposition to the Bank.
• Though it still had 4 more years to run, he would “kill” it by
withdrawing Govt. funds: instead deposited them in
independent / private or state banks / “pet banks” (many
owned by Democrats)
• Biddle struck back by calling in loans, raising interest
rates and restricting credit: hoped the resulting
Depression (the Biddle Panic) would put pressure on
Jackson to withdraw his veto, or at least put money back
in the BUS
• The Pet Banks flooded parts of the country with
unreliable paper currency….
• Jackson authorized the treasury to require that all public
land sales be with “hard” money – the Specie Circular,
to stop another speculative boom
• An Economic crisis developed…
• Biddle blamed Jackson for the Panic/Depression,
Jackson blamed Biddle
• But Jackson would not give in: Biddle backed down
(lowered rates, gave loans): Jackson won the Bank War
• The BUS declined and then was disbanded in 1836 when
its charter expired
• The absence of the BUS would cause further Economic
decline…
• Was this “an amplification of the power of the
Presidency?” …. King Andrew 1st…Did he have to
eliminate the BUS? How could he have reformed it?
• Political cartoon accusing Andrew Jackson of
monarchical ambitions, 1832.
Jackson as President
The Taney Court
• Marshall died in 1835: Jackson chose Taney, friend, ally
in the Bank War: committed Democrat
• More Democrats also appointed to Supreme Court and
other judgeships
• Supreme Court set the tone for more emphasis now on
States Rights, willingness to repeal contracts etc….
• Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 1837: about a
second bridge over the Charles River: State of Mass
supported a new contract allowing a second bridge,
ending old contract (Marshall had protected contracts)
• Taney supports the decision, in the interests of increased
competition, ending monopolies, lowering costs,
lowering prices for consumers
Jackson as President
Emergence of Second Two Party System: Democrats
and Whigs
• Opponents of "King Andrew I“ began to merge into an
opposition group
• Called themselves Whigs (inc. National Rep’s, AntiMasonic Party, ex-Democrats): tried to portray him as a
pro-Monarchist Tory
• Inherited Federalism, policies of J.Q. Adams / N. East
(BUS, American System, 1.8.18 / Elastic Clause…..)
Jackson as President
• Whigs were led by Clay, Webster, Calhoun – neither
was able to win national support, beyond their regions
• The divided Whigs ran 3 candidates, in 3 regions, against
Van Buren, in 1836 (Harrison, White, Webster)
• Jackson’s popularity and the efficient Democratic Party
machine enabled him to win – rather than his own
personality or politics
Van Buren Presidency
• Big shoes to fill; never as popular as Jackson
• Some Democrats resented that Jackson had imposed him
on the Party as their choice
• Was plagued throughout his admin. with economic
difficulties / Depression, inherited from Jackson
presidency, that contributed to the strengthening of the
Whigs
• To end the Economic Crisis he supported an Independent
Treasury (Divorce Bill) – keep Fed Gov money out of
banks, in vaults in various cities: passed in 1840 but
repealed by Whigs in 1841_
Van Buren Presidency
• Economic Panic also cause by a Depression in Europe /
England and a succession of crop failures in the US
• The Panic helped the election prospects of the Whigs; won
the Presidency in 1840; Wm Harrison defeated Van
Buren in his re-election bid
• Whigs had used Democratic Party / Jackson style
electioneering / campaigning
• Portrayed themselves as saviors of the masses from Van
Buren’s aloofness, elitism
• Portrayed Harrison as the man of the people, representing
rustic values, a simple man.. log cabin, cider etc… (though
he was an FFV aristocrat) and took advantage of his
military heroics over the Native Americans / Shawnee at
Tippecanoe in 1811
Whigs and Democrats, to Republicans
• Harrison died 1841: succeeded by Tyler (left Democrats,
joined Whigs because he didn’t like the dictatorial
tendencies of Jackson):
• Former Democrat from Virginia.
• Still believed in many Democratic policies.
• Expelled by Whigs for vetoing a bill that would have
restored a system like the BUS: rejoined Democrats
• James Polk: 1844: Democrat
• Zachary Taylor: 1848: Whig
• Franklin Pierce: 1852: Democrat
• James Buchanan: 1856: Democrat
• Lincoln: 1860: Republican
Age of the Common Man or of the Dictatorship of
Andrew Jackson?
• Common Man President or Dictator?
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Inauguration brawl
Spoils System / Rotation of Office
Kitchen Cabinet
12 Vetoes
Views on Power of Presidency
National Nominating Conventions
Webster Hayne Debate
Peggy O Neal
Nullification Crisis
Maysville Road
Indian Removal Act / Cherokee Removal
BUS - Depression
Interesting Quotes
• "Andrew Jackson was the first modern
president, because he was the first one who
asserted that the president was not merely a
member of the government's symphony: he
was its conductor."
• Jon Meacham, historian
• "Andrew Jackson, I am given to understand,
was a patriot and a traitor. He was one of the
greatest of generals, and wholly ignorant of the
art of war... He was the most candid of men,
and was capable of the profoundest
dissimulation... A democratic autocrat. An
urbane savage. An atrocious saint."
• James Parton, biographer, 1859
• "How you judge this period in our history
hinges on what you think about race, about the
plight of Native Americans, about corporate
capitalism...about democracy in practice and
whether it really works or not."
• Daniel Feller, historian
• "After 8 years as president, I have only two
regrets. That I have not shot Henry Clay or
hanged John C. Calhoun."
• Andrew Jackson