Transcript Individuals and Families of Asian Descent

CHAPTER 11:
Individuals and Families of
Asian Descent
Developing Multicultural Counseling
Competence: A Systems Approach
Second Edition
Danica G. Hays and Bradley T. Erford
Asian American History
•
Large-scale arrival of Chinese laborers in
the mid-1800s as the start of immigration
among Asian ethnic groups
•
“push” and “pull” immigration factors
•
Development of Chinatowns
•
Anti-Asian violence
•
Asian American as a recent phenomenon
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-2
Asian American History
•
Institutional & legislative discrimination:
•
Anti-miscegenation codes, housing restrictions,
educational limitations to ethnic-specific business
taxes, anti-naturalization & anti-immigration laws
•
1942 incarceration of 120,000 Japanese Americans
(62% were U.S. citizens)
•
Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
•
One million Southeast Asians fleeing Vietnam,
Cambodia, and Laos after 1975
•
Between 2000 and 2010, the Asian population in
American grew faster than any other major race
group
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-3
Contemporary Forms of
Discrimination
•
Asian Americans still encounter forms of institutional racism
•
•
Individual racism
•
•
Examples: “English-only” language initiatives, income-toeducation disparities, glass ceiling effects in career
advancement
Differential treatment, verbal insults, racial slurs, physical
harassment, vandalism, & in some cases homicide
Stereotypes
•
Reduced to one-dimensional caricatures
•
“Perpetual foreigner” or “model minority”
•
Second-class status
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-4
Asian American Heterogeneity
•
43 distinct Asian groups from 20 countries
of origin with diverse immigration histories
•
Immigration patterns may have
implications for their clients’ understanding
of & adaptation to U.S. cultural norms
•
•
Heterogeneity among Asian
communities may have implications for
counseling
Impact of language proficiency,
immigration history, & educational level
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-5
Family
•
Definition of family/kinship for Asian
Americans
•
Collectivism
•
Filial piety
•
Common for adult children to reside with
their parents until & even after marriage
•
“Saving face” & protecting honor of the
family
•
Parenting tends to be authoritarian &
directive
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-6
Gender Roles
•
Socialized primarily within a patriarchal
society
•
Specific gender roles & communication rules
set by the family
•
Education is seen as a marketable tool in
marriage for women
•
Within-group differences exist
•
Gender roles and responsibilities are clearly
prescribed and based on one’s authority
status in the family and social hierarchy
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-7
Interpersonal Relationships
•
Maintaining harmony governs interpersonal
relationships
•
Nondirective, nonconfrontational, & silent are
considered virtues
•
Moderation in behaviors is valued through selfrestraint & self-control
•
Not extremely emotionally demonstrative in
relationships
•
Humility in deeds & actions is seen as
maintaining respect & dignity in relationships
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-8
Intimacy & Marriage
•
Youth are traditionally not encouraged to date
•
Parents & extended family play an important role
in choosing a mate for their children through
social networks
•
Marriage is considered a union of two families,
however, marriage based on love and mutual
compatibility has increasingly become a norm
•
Asian Americans traditionally tend to be modest
regarding their sexuality & nondemonstrative in
their sexual & physical affection
•
Divorce and interracial marriages are not
common, but both are on the rise
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-9
Education
•
Asian Americans have a high regard for learning
•
Academic achievement & a successful career are
highly valued & indicative of a good family
upbringing
•
Pressure to spend time studying at the expense of
other curricular activities
•
Pressure to obtain certain jobs (science-related or
technical) to ensure occupational and financial
security as minority members within the U.S.
•
Viable means of upward mobility - a concept they
refer to as relative functionalism
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-10
Religion
•
Depending on the geographical region, different
religious teachings serve as important spiritual
philosophies guiding Asian American lives
•
Majority of Asian communities believe in fate,
rebirth, and an afterlife
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Pain/stress & pleasure are essential to one’s
existence & a natural part of a life long process
•
Religious philosophies influence perspectives on
life, health, & illness
•
Places of worship & religious figures may be key
sources of support during times of difficulties
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-11
Death & Dying
•
Death is a communal affair among several
Asian groups
•
Burials & cremation ceremonies are
traditionally performed by the males in the
family & elders are often consulted in
performing rites
•
These rituals greatly affect the family &
their perceptions of the deceased
•
Hmong beliefs
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-12
Immigration, Enculturation, &
Acculturation
•
Factors known to mediate Asian American
adaptation to the U.S. society:
•
•
Reason for immigration, the age at
immigration, language abilities, past & present
exposure to Western cultures, immigration
status, socioeconomic status, professional
status, ethnic pride, & the length of stay in the
U.S.
Enculturation - socialization within one’s own
ethnic cultural values, attitudes, & behaviors,
while acculturation occurs within the context of
contact with the dominant culture
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-13
Ethnicity & Race
•
The process of ethnic identification begins at a very
young age with family playing a significant role in
this socialization process
•
Cultural frame switching = different aspects of
identity may be activated based on different
contexts.
•
Long history of racism and discrimination in the
form of denial of land ownership and citizenship,
anti-miscegenation laws, racial profiling, targets of
racial slurs and violence, internment camps.
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-14
Ethnicity & Race Continued
•
Factors that mask the negative effects of
discrimination on Asian Americans:
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minority myth.
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tendency to dichotomize racism as a BlackWhite issue.
•
lack of racial socialization & a language to speak
to these issues among new immigrants.
•
related racial politics of success & economics.
•
Greater awareness of discrimination within this
community since 9/11.
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-15
Gender Roles
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Traditional Asian cultures suggest clear & stringent
gender roles
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Confucianism & Hinduism see masculine & feminine
characteristics intrinsic & complementary to each
other
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Men seem to experience fewer expectations in
relation to sexual behaviors & intimacy
•
Women experience greater community censures
related to gender roles & intimacy issues
•
Stereotyped images of women as mail-order brides
and dragon ladies has led to sexual exploitation
and objectification of women
•
Role of immigration on gender roles within the
family
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-16
Sexuality & Sexual Identity
•
Attitudes & openness to sexual issues are
displayed through the arts, literature, religion,
history, & philosophy
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Asian cultural norms have become more
restrictive & place a strong emphasis on silence
surrounding issues of sexuality
•
Asian Americans perceive homosexuality as a
Western concept; seen as a “White disease”
•
Acculturation, exposure to U.S. values, & religion
may play an important role in more positive
attitudes toward sexuality & sexual identity issues
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-17
General Mental Health Issues
•
Limitations of epidemiological studies for Asian
American groups
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Racism
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Related to lower levels of psychological wellbeing for Asian Americans
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Influences self-esteem, depression, racerelated stress, drug use, body image, PTSD,
HIV risk behaviors, and chronic health
conditions
•
Perceived discrimination is also associated with
an underutilization of both health and mental
health care services
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-18
General Mental Health Issues
Cont.
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Depression
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Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
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Domestic Violence
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Anxiety
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Schizophrenia
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-19
Help Seeking & Coping
•
Help seeking may be influenced by Asian values norms
& worldview
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Utilization rates:
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Three times less likely than their White counterparts
to use mental health services
•
U.S. born Asian Americans more likely to see a
mental health provider than foreign-born Asian
Americans
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When Asian Americans did seek help, they were
noted to prematurely terminate psychotherapy
treatment
•
The more acculturated and the greater the English
language proficiency, the higher likelihood of
seeking mental health services
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-20
Help Seeking & Coping Cont.
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Attitudes & Barriers in Help-Seeking
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Lack of knowledge about Western mental health
treatment & misconceptions about professional
counseling
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May be closely related to immigration history, length
of stay in the U.S., levels of acculturation, gender,
age, & history of previous treatment
•
Limited language proficiency & client-counselor
ethnic matching
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Cultural values & views of mental health
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Cultural factors influence perceptions of symptoms
or causes of a disorder, & the effectiveness of
interventions
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-21
Help Seeking & Coping Cont.
•
Mind & body are seen as inseparable in the Asian
culture
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Holistic emphasis on health & a spiritually guided life
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Mind-body harmony – Tai Chi, yoga, Qi-gong,
acupuncture, therapeutic massage.
•
Nutrition is another popular means of restoring
health – herbal medicine or specific foods
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Support from family members and social networks
that are ethnically and racially similar
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Conflict between values endorsed by the Western
mental health systems & Asian values
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Ease of access to services either due to transportation
or location, or familial obligations
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-22
Guidelines for Counseling
Clients of Asian Descent
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Education about counseling & the utility of mental health
services
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Counselor self-assessment
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Counseling Process
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Within-session interactions & factors that influence the
dynamics in counseling
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Overt & covert contributions from the counselor, the
client, & the interactional dynamics
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Asian Americans may be deferential to people in authority
or may expect the counselor to provide advice
•
Developing a relationship with your client is the most
important factor in creating a trusting environment
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-23
Guidelines for Counseling
Clients of Asian Descent Cont.
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Conceptualization of the Problem
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It is important to align the conceptualization of
the problem to the multiple contexts in which
individuals exist
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Counselors should recognize the psychological
significance of immigration
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Exploring the negotiation between education &
class, ethnic & racial identities, gender & sexual
identities, & gaining in awareness of the shifts &
variations in experiences
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-24
Guidelines for Counseling
Clients of Asian Descent Cont.
•
Intervention
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Asian Americans typically prefer an authoritarian,
directive, & structured approach to treatment
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Because of the significant role families play, family
therapy might be an appropriate intervention
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To prevent stereotyping or overgeneralizing, it is
essential to assess individual differences that exist within
& across generations & ethnic groups
•
Specific needs & adjustment issues of American-born
Asians can be quite different from those of foreign-born
Asians
•
Voluntary Asian immigrants’ needs & adjustments can be
different from non-voluntary immigrants or refugees from
Asia
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-25
Guidelines for Counseling
Clients of Asian Descent Cont.
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Counselors should:
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Develop a range of treatment modalities for working
with Asian communities
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Assess the problem to determine if it is individual,
systemic, environmental, or a combination of these
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Consider the application of traditional Western
modalities on Asian Americans
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Factor alternative healing approaches into
counseling
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Develop outreach & non-clinical visibility
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-26
Responsibility
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Counselors should:
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Challenge minority myth for Asian Americans
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Assess counseling interventions’ effect on the
individual and the community
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Be conscious of academic pressures Asian American
youth face
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Examine the role of external forces on Asian
American lives
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Challenge oppression and discriminatory behaviors
that occur at individual, cultural, and systemic levels
•
Be cognizant of social and personal costs to Asian
Americans of acculturation and alliances to different
identities
Hays & Erford, Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
(2nd Edition) © 2013, 2009 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved
11-27