Transcript APCHap9Motivation_revised2014

Opening Activity
In your group, you will spend 3-4 minutes
discussing the topic at each poster.
 Using your groups’ colored marker, write
down any facts/information you know
about that topic and/or any feelings you
have towards that topic.
 Read what other groups wrote and put a
check by the items you agree with it. You
can also add comments to what others
wrote.

Motivation and
Emotion
Chapter 9
What is motivation?
Motivation involves goal
directed behavior
….it also energizes and
directs behavior
Major Theories of Motivation
Biological Theories:
1. Instinct--inborn, unlearned
behaviors universal to
species explain motivation
2. Drive-Reduction--internal
tensions “push” toward
satisfying basic needs
3. Arousal--motivated toward
optimal level of arousal
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2008
Carpenter/Huffman: Visualizing
Psychology
Drive Theories
 Drive
theories say that human
organisms try to maintain
homeostasis
A
drive is an internal state of
tension that motivates an organism
to engage in activities that should
reduce this tension.
Drive-Reduction Theory
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2008
Carpenter/Huffman: Visualizing
Psychology
Arousal (Yerkes Dodson Law)
Theory
•
People seek an
optimal level of
arousal that
maximizes their
performance.
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2008
Carpenter/Huffman: Visualizing
Psychology
Incentive Theories
 An
incentive is an external goal that
has the capacity to motivate
behavior
 Drive theories emphasize internal
states of tension that pull people in
one direction, while incentive
theories emphasize external
stimuli that push people in certain
directions.
Critical Thinking about
Motivation and Emotion
 Intrinsic
versus extrinsic motivation--
extrinsic rewards may lower interest and
motivation.
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2008
Carpenter/Huffman: Visualizing
Psychology
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2008
Carpenter/Huffman: Visualizing
Psychology
The most basic needs are physiological
like thirst and hunger and security
 If you achieve satisfaction of needs on one
level, it activates the needs at the next
level
 People have an innate drive toward
personal growth

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Evolutionary Theories
Emphasizes the idea that we are
motivated for the adaptive value of the
motive.
 1. Affiliation: Why might people develop
a need to belong?
 2. Dominance: Why is it that males are
typically more dominant than females?
 Achievement, aggression and sex drives
can be other motives that we have in
order to pass genes on to the next
generation

Hunger and Eating
 Why do
 Cannon
we eat??????
and
Washburn (1912)
observed the
association between
stomach contractions
and the experience
of hunger, with them
causing hunger.
 The rat on the left
Biological factors:
1. Brain: 3 parts of the had the ventromedial
hypothalamus
area of its
2. Glucose & Digestion hypothalamus
◦ Glucostats
◦ Vagus Nerve (stomach)
destroyed.
3. Hormone Regulation
◦ Insulin
◦ Leptin
Hunger Drive
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2008
Carpenter/Huffman: Visualizing
Psychology
Motivation and Behavior—
Hunger and Eating
 Psychological
factors: visual
cues, cultural
conditioning,
learned
preferences,
stress
©John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2008
Carpenter/Huffman: Visualizing
Psychology
Who’s obese?
Obesity
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Criterion 1- If the body weight exceeds
their ideal body weight by 20%.
31% of males and 35% of females in the
US are obese
Criterion 2- Body Mass Index (BMI)
weight divided by height in meters
squared (kg/m2)
BMI of 25-29.9 is overweight, over 30 is
obese. 50% of American are overweight.
Why are Americans so overweight when
we value slimness….learned helplessness?
Other Weight Issues
 Evolutionary
views: why so fat
now?? Is it an excess of the food
supply?
 Dieting- At any time 21% of men
and 39% of women are dieting
 Twin and Adoption Studies
 Set Point Theory
Health Problems
Sex and Gender
Sex: Biologically
based and genetically
determined. Either
male or female
 Gender: Socially
constructed, the
concept of
masculinity or
femininity
 But…is that all there
is???
 A third options?
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Biological Factors
Hypothalamus and Pituitary glands regulate
secretions of hormones by gonads in the
ovaries and testes
 In females, the hormone is estrogen. In males,
it is androgen/testosterone.
 In many species, females are only sexually
receptive just prior to ovulation (dogs) and if a
male’s testes are removed they lose all sexual
interest.
 Higher levels of testosterone correlate with
higher rates of sexual activity in both sexes.
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Genetic Anomalies
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Each parent contribute a
chromosome and
sometimes things go wrong.
For example women give an
X chromosome and the
father give either an X or Y.
Fetuses are undifferentiated
for sex until 8 weeks when
the Y chromosome causes
the body to secrete
testosterone and the body
forms testicles.
Genetic Anomalies
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Males with XXY
have Klinefelter’s
Syndrome. The
symptoms are
infertility,
enlarged breasts,
small firm
testicles, small
penis, sparse
facial hair, long
legs and short
trunk.
Prenatal Hormone
Abnormalities  Androgen
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Andrenogenital
Syndrome (AGS)
Too much androgen is
released to the fetus.
Not a problem if you’re a
male but females are
masculine.
Genitalia will
masculinize and more
like a tomboy.
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Insensitivity
syndrome (AIS)
Baby doesn’t detect
androgen. Boys don’t
masculinize they
develop female (XY)
No internal sex organs
They are XY females.
At puberty they grow
breasts but do not
menstruate.
Sexual Motivation and Behavior;
The Human Sexual response
 Masters
and
Johnson (1960)
were involved in the
research of the
human sexual
stages; excitement,
plateau, orgasm
and resolution
Excitement Phase
The level of physical arousal, muscle
tension, respiration and heart rate
escalates rapidly.
 Vasocongestion or the engorgement of
blood vessels can be found in both men
and women.
 Male- penile erection and swollen testes.
 Female- swelling of the vaginal lips and
vaginal lubrication.

Males During Excitement and
Plateau
Males During Orgasm and
Resolution
Females During Excitement and
Plateau
Females During Orgasm and
Resolution
Plateau Phase
 arousal
continues to build at a
slower pace
 Vasocongestion continues
 Clitoris is more exposed
 Men may secrete fluid from tip of
penis (not ejaculation but may
contain sperm)
Orgasm Phase
Orgasm occurs when sexual arousal reaches
its peak intensity and is discharged in a
series of muscular contractions that pulsate
through the pelvic area.
 Sharp increase in heart rate, blood pressure
and respiration
 One big difference between men and women
are that women can be multi-orgasmic.
However, women are more likely to have
intercourse without orgasm. Men ejaculate
semen.
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Resolution Phase
 The
changes gradually subside with
orgasm and men experience a
refractory period.
 A refractory period is a time following
orgasm during which males are largely
unresponsive to further stimulation.
 Masters and Johnson found that sexual
behavior, like eating and hunger,
involves a combination of biological and
social processes
Masters and Johnson
 The
importance of this study
was that they demonstrated
that sexual problems were
typically caused by
psychological factors not
physical ones (connect with
Viagra)
Environmental Factors-Viewing
Sex in the Media
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Films, especially R-rated ones shape
or alter attitudes of sex. They can
lead to expectation of what it is
supposed to be like (soap operas)
Erotic material may alter attitudes
that eventually influence sexual
behavior
There has been a correlation shown
between aggressive pornography and
sex crime rates.
Aggressive porn usually degrade
women and depicts violence against
women
Studies
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1984 Study: Male and
female undergrads
exposed to large
doses of porn (3-6
films a week for 6
weeks) developed
more liberal attitudes
about sexual
practices, such as
viewing premarital
and extramarital sex
as more acceptable.
More Studies
 1988
Study: Suggests that viewing
sexually explicit films make some people
dissatisfied with their own sexual
interactions. In comparison to the control
subjects, the subjects exposed to a steady
diet of porn reported less satisfaction with
their partner’s physical appearance,
sexual curiosity and sexual performance.
Thus, porn may create unrealistic
expectations about sexual relations.
Evolutionary Analysis
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Robert Trivers’s (1972) parental involvement theory
states that each sex has something to invest in
terms of time, energy, survival risk and forgone
opportunities. So therefore they must evaluate
these things in order to produce and nurture
offspring.
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The sex that makes the smaller investment (time
and energy wise) will compete for mating
opportunities with the sex that makes the larger
investment. HOWEVER, The sex with the larger
investment is more discriminating in selecting its
partners (costs)
Is this true for humans?
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Mate Preferences
Most couples have similar characteristics
(Matching Hypothesis)
 Yet, if there are differences, they are
usually in socioeconomic status and age.
 The evolutionary view of why men prefer
younger more attractive women….more
reproductive years associated with health
and fertility.
 Women, however, look for intelligence,
ambition, education, income and social
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Older Man, Younger Woman:
Why?
Always the norm?
Cultural Data
David Buss and other psychologists’ did a
cross cultural study of 37 different cultures
 Results:
 10,000 people took a survey about what they
look for in a mate
 Women in both industrial and 3rd world
countries place a higher value on status,
ambition, financial prospects
 Men on youth and attractiveness
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If gender is a Social Construct,
then is it learned? If so, how?
Gender roles: Expectations about what is
appropriate behavior for each sex
 Gender Stereotypes are widely held beliefs
about females’ and males’ abilities, personal
traits and social behavior.
 Gender Socialization is a process where social
values and norms are taught and learned either
consciously or unconsciously and can be
through socializing agents such as the media.
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Sexual Orientation
Refers to a person’s preference for
emotional and sexual relationships with
individuals of the same sex, the other
sex, or either sex.
 Heterosexuals: opposite sex
 Homosexual:Same sex
 Bisexual: Either sex

Alfred Kinsey
Studies people who consider themselves
to be heterosexual and found that they
have had homosexual experiences and
vice versa.
 Concluded that it is more accurate to view
heterosexuality and homosexuality as
end points along a continuum.
 Devised a seven point scale
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Yet, how common is
homosexuality?
It is hard to determine because how do
you define it if people have had various
types of experiences?
 Prejudice also comes into play
 Studies show homosexuality to be 10%
but this may be inflated.
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Nature versus Nurture?
Biological Theories
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Up until the 1990’s, biological theorists tried to
explain homosexuality in terms of hormones with
little or no success.
However in 1990, Bailey and Pillard studied twins
and adopted children. The results were:
52% of identical twins were gay
22% of fraternal twins were gay
11% of adopted brothers were gay
Similar results were found in lesbians
Brain differences/Hormone secretions
Environmental Theories of
Homosexuality
Freudian theorists argued that a male is likely to
become gay if he has a domineering mother
and a weak father.
 Extensive research has shown that upbringing
has failed to support the idea.
 However, it has become apparent that
extremely feminine behavior in young boys or
masculine behavior in young girls does predict
the subsequent development of homosexuality.
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Homosexuality in Nature
Fear of Homosexuality???
Affiliation v. Achievement motive
Affiliation- the need to
associate with others and
maintain social bonds.
 People who score high on
the affiliation motive
spend MORE TIME
DEVOTED to
interpersonal activities.
 devote more time to
conversations and letter
writing than others
 worry more about
acceptance
Achievement- need to
master difficult challenges,
to outperform others, and
to meet high standards of
excellence.
 involves the DESIRE to
excel especially in
competition with others
 David McClelland –
analyzed literature from
various culture
TAT- Thematic Apperception Test
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projective test, one that requires
subjects to respond to vague,
ambiguous stimuli in ways to reveal
their personal motives and traits.
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Situational Factors of Achieving
Behavior
Atkinson (1974) identified some important
situational determinants.
1. The strength of one’s motivation to achieve
success (stable aspect of personality)
2. The estimate of the probability of success
(vary from task to task)
3. The incentive value of success (tangible and
intangible rewards)
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Elements of Emotional Experience
1.
A subjective conscious experience
(cognitive part)
2.
Bodily arousal (the physiological part)
3.
Characteristic overt expressions (the
behavioral part)
Cognitive- interpretation of emotions
highly personal and subjective
 Difficult to regulate
 Individual variability
 More names to describe negative emotions
than positive ones
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The Physiological Component
What nervous systems, brain areas,
body parts, hormones, and
neurotransmitters involved?
ANS AND EMOTION
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Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) is an increase in
the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs
when sweat glands in crease their activity
The GSR is an index of arousal used to measure
emotional response.
Polygraphs are devices that record autonomic
fluctuations while a suspect is questioned. They
are about 85-90% accurate.
Behavioral- Nonverbal Component
Overt expressions “body language”
 Paul Ekman’s Facial Feedback
Hypothesis
 According to Ekman, there are six
functional emotions: Happiness,
Sadness, Anger, Fear, Surprise, Disgust
 Cultural variations
 Display rules- norms that regulate the
appropriate expression of emotions
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