Introduction to Psychology
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Transcript Introduction to Psychology
Myers’ PSYCHOLOGY
(7th Ed)
Chapter 1
Thinking Critically with
Psychological Science
James A. McCubbin, PhD
Clemson University
Worth Publishers
The Need for
Psychological Science
Psychologists, like all scientists, use
the scientific method to construct
theories that organize observations
and imply testable hypotheses
The Need for
Psychological Science
Hindsight Bias
we tend to believe, after learning an
outcome, that we would have foreseen it
the “I-knew-it-all-along” phenomenon
Overconfidence
we tend to think we know more than we
do
The Need for
Psychological Science
Critical Thinking
thinking that does
not blindly accept
arguments and
conclusions
examines assumptions
discerns hidden values
evaluates evidence
The Amazing Randi--Skeptic
The Need for
Psychological Science
Theory
an explanation using an integrated set of
principles that organizes and predicts
observations
Hypothesis
a testable prediction
often implied by a theory
The Need for
Psychological Science
The Need for
Psychological Science
Operational Definition
a statement of procedures (operations)
used to define research variables
Example intelligence may be operationally defined as
what an intelligence test measures
The Need for
Psychological Science
Replication
repeating the essence of a research
study to see whether the basic
finding generalizes to other
participants and circumstances
usually with different participants in
different situations
Description
Psychologists describe behavior
using case studies, surveys, and
naturalistic observation
Description
Case Study
Psychologists
study one or
more individuals
in great depth in
the hope of
revealing things
true of us all
Is language uniquely human?
Description
Survey
technique for ascertaining the self-reported
attitudes or behaviors of people
usually by questioning a representative, random
sample of people
Random Sample
a sample that fairly represents a population
because each member has an equal chance of
inclusion
Description
False Consensus Effect
tendency to overestimate the extent to
which others share our beliefs and
behaviors
Population
all the cases in a group, from which
samples may be drawn for a study
Description
Description
If marbles of two
colors are mixed well
in the large jar, the
fastest way to know
their ratio is to blindly
transfer a few into a
smaller one and
count them
Description
Naturalistic
Observation
observing and
recording behavior
in naturally
occurring situations
without trying to
manipulate and
control the situation
Correlation
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary
together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
Indicates direction
of relationship
(positive or negative)
Correlation
coefficient
r = +.37
Indicates strength
of relationship
(0.00 to 1.00)
Correlation
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which
represents the values of two variables
the slope of the points suggests the direction of
the relationship
the amount of scatter suggests the strength of
the correlation
little scatter indicates high correlation
also called a scattergram or scatter diagram
Correlation
Perfect positive
correlation (+1.00)
No relationship (0.00)
Perfect negative
correlation (-1.00)
Scatterplots, showing patterns of correlations
Correlation
Height and Temperament of 20 Men
Height in
Subject Inches Temperament
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
80
63
61
79
74
69
62
75
77
60
75
66
60
90
60
42
42
60
81
39
Height in
Subject Inches Temperament
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
64
76
71
66
73
70
63
71
68
70
48
69
72
57
63
75
30
57
84
39
Correlation
95
Temperament 90
scores 85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
55
60
65
70
Height in inches
75
80
Scatterplot of Height and Temperament
85
Correlation
Three Possible Cause-Effect Relationships
(1)
Low self-esteem
could cause
Depression
or
(2)
Depression
could cause
Low self-esteem
or
Low self-esteem
(3)
Distressing events
or biological
predisposition
could cause
and
Depression
Illusory Correlation
Illusory
Correlation
the perception
of a
relationship
where none
exists
Conceive
Adopt
Do not
adopt
Do not conceive
confirming
evidence
disconfirming
evidence
disconfirming
evidence
confirming
evidence
Two Random
Sequences
Your chances of
being dealt
either of these
hands is
precisely the
same: 1 in
2,598,960.
Experimentation
Experiment
an investigator manipulates one or more
factors (independent variables) to observe
their effect on some behavior or mental
process (the dependent variable)
by random assignment of participants the
experiment controls other relevant factors
Experimentation
Placebo
an inert substance or condition that may be
administered instead of a presumed active agent,
such as a drug, to see if it triggers the effects
believed to characterize the active agent
Double-blind Procedure
both the research participants and the research
staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the
research participants have received the treatment
or a placebo
commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
Experimentation
Experimental Condition
the condition of an experiment that exposes
participants to the treatment, that is, to one
version of the independent variable
Control Condition
the condition of an experiment that contrasts
with the experimental treatment
serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect
of the treatment
Experimentation
Random Assignment
assigning participants to
experimental and control conditions
by chance
minimizes pre-existing differences
between those assigned to the
different groups
Experimentation
Independent Variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated
the variable whose effect is being studied
Dependent Variable
the experimental factor that may change in
response to manipulations of the independent
variable
in psychology it is usually a behavior or mental
process
Experimentation
Research Strategies
Subliminal tape content
Self-esteem
Tape label
Self-esteem
Memory
Memory
Design of the
subliminal
tapes
experiment
Statistical Reasoning
Percentage
still functioning
after 10 years
100%
99
98
97
96
95
Our Brand Brand Brand
Brand
X
Y
Z
Brand of truck
Statistical Reasoning
Percentage
still functioning
after 10 years
100%
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Our Brand
Brand
X
Brand Brand
Y
Z
Brand of truck
Statistical Reasoning
Mode
the most frequently occurring score in a
distribution
Mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution
obtained by adding the scores and then dividing
by the number of scores
Median
the middle score in a distribution
half the scores are above it and half are below it
Statistical Reasoning
A Skewed Distribution
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
90
475
70
Mode Median
One Family
Mean
Income per family in thousands of dollars
710
Statistical Reasoning
Range
the difference between the highest and lowest
scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary
around the mean
Statistical Significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an
obtained result occurred by chance
Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology
Can laboratory experiments
illuminate everyday life?
Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology
Does behavior depend on
ones culture?
Culture--the enduring behaviors,
ideas, attitudes, and traditions
shared by a large group of people
and transmitted from one
generation to the next
Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology
Does behavior vary with
gender?
Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology
Why do psychologists study
animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on
animals?
Is it ethical to experiment on
people?
Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology
Is
psychology
free of
value
judgments?
Frequently Asked Questions
about Psychology
Is psychology potentially
dangerous?