Transcript Chapter 02 - History of Ocean Exploration and Marine Science

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►The History of Oceanography – Why Study It?
►Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C.- 800 A.D.)
►The Middle Ages (800 A.D. - 1400)
►European Voyages of Discovery (1400 - 1700)
►The Birth of Marine Science (1700 – 1900)
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►Twentieth-Century Marine Science
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
The History of Oceanography – Why Study It?
The History of Ocean Exploration
and Marine Sciences
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
The History of Oceanography – Why Study It?
The History of Oceanography - Why Study It?
 Three very good reasons to learn the
history of oceanography:
 The history of oceanography is
connected to the world’s
overall history.
 Oceanography’s past helps us
understand why and how
people apply marine sciences
today.
 It is interesting.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-2 to 2-3
The History of Oceanography – Why Study It?
The History of Oceanography - Why Study It?
 The history of oceanography can be
divided into four stages:
 Ancient Uses and Explorations
(5000 B.C. - 800 A.D.)
 The Middle Ages (800 - 1400)
 European Voyages of Discovery
(1400 - 1700)
 The Birth of Marine Science
(1700 - 1900)
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-4 to 2-15
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Uses and Explorations
(5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-4 to 2-5
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Prehistory and the Rise of Seafaring
 Three primary reasons for
early civilization to interact
with the ocean:
 To obtain food.
 Trade with other cultures.
 To discover new lands.
 The earliest recorded sea
voyage appears to be 3200
B.C. under the auspices of
Egyptian Pharaoh Snefru.
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 The Phoenicians contributed to
ocean exploration by
establishing the first trade
routes throughout the
Mediterranean, even as far
north as Great Britain.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-5 to 2-6
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Phoenician
Explorations and Discoveries
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 The significance of Polynesian seafaring is that it is
the earliest known regular, long-distance, open-ocean
sailing beyond sight of land.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-7 to 2-8
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Polynesian Explorations
and Discoveries
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 Spreading eastward from Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa,
Polynesians settled islands in an area of about 26
million square kilometers (10 million square miles).
Chapter 2 Pages 2-7 to 2-8
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Polynesian Explorations
and Discoveries
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 The Greeks used references on shore to navigate.
This is called piloting.
 As seafaring advanced they learned to use the
sun, constellations, the North Star and sea
conditions to navigate in the open ocean.
 The Greeks knew the Earth was a sphere, not flat.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
 Pytheas noted that he could predict
tides in the Atlantic based on the
phases of the moon.
 He could determine how far
North or South one was from the
North Star by measuring the
angle between the horizon and
the North Star.
 This was a significant
improvement in navigation.
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 Eratosthenes (264-194 B.C.) is credited with two
contributions:
 He calculated the Earth’s circumference.
 He invented the first latitude/longitude system.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
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 In 127 B.C., Hipparchus improved Eratosthenes’
maps by inventing the regular grid system.
 In 450 B.C., Herodotus published a detailed history of
Greece’s struggles with the Persian Empire. This
work was significant because it was one of the
earliest published maps of the world the Greeks
knew.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
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 In 63 B.C.-24 A.D., Strabo published a 17-book work
called Geographic that contained a map expanding
knowledge/accuracy about the world.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
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 In 100-168 A.D., Ptolemy developed the first known
map to show a portion of the Earth as a sphere on
flat paper.
 It showed latitude/longitude by dividing the grid
into degrees, minutes, and seconds of the arc.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-8 to 2-10
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Ancient Greek Explorations and Discoveries
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Step 1:
7.2°/800km =
360°/Earth circumference in km
Step 2:
7.2° x Earth circumference in km =
800 km x 360°
Step 3 - Solve:
Earth circumference in km =
800 km x 360°/7.2°
Earth circumference in km =
288,000° km/7.2°
Chapter 2 Page 2-11
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Measuring The Size of the
Earth – Ancient Greek Style
Earth circumference in km =
40,000 km (24,840 miles)
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 The purpose of the latitude and longitude mapping
system is to identify specific locations on the Earth’s
surface, even in the absence of landmarks.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Latitude/Longitude System
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 Latitude Lines:
 Also called parallels.
 Run east-west.
 0º parallel is also
called the equator.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Latitude/Longitude System
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 Longitude Lines:
 Also called meridians.
 Run north-south.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Latitude/Longitude System
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 Prime Meridian is located
on the longitude of the
Royal Naval Observatory
in Greenwich, England.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Latitude/Longitude System
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 Further Accuracy:
 Degrees are subdivided into 60 minutes, minutes
are subdivided into 60 seconds.
 Most scientists use decimal degrees.
Titanic Location
49.9469˚ W
41.7325˚ N
As expressed in
Decimal Degrees
Chapter 2 Pages 2-12 to 2-14
Ancient Uses and Explorations (5000 B.C. – 800 A.D.)
Latitude/Longitude System
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-16 to 2-19
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
The Middle Ages (800 A.D.-1400)
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-16
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
The European Middle Ages
 Decline of the Roman Empire broke Europe into
many isolated communities.
 This breakup hindered communication of scientific
discoveries and knowledge.
 The Catholic Church rose to power, which may
have influenced the communication of scientific
discoveries.
 Also known as the Dark Ages because during this
time further advancements in the knowledge of
geography and science were suppressed in Europe.
 Little ocean exploration by Europeans was made,
only trade continued.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-17
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
Viking Explorations and Discoveries
 The Vikings were the only people with significant
exploration taking place in Europe during the Dark
Ages:
 They established trade routes throughout Britain,
Ireland, Southern Europe, North Africa, and
Central Asia.
 In the 9th century there was a global warming that
freed the North Atlantic of ice allowing the Vikings
to explore westward discovering Iceland,
Greenland, and North America.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-18
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
Chinese Explorations and Discoveries
 The Chinese were very active explorers during the
Middle Ages and were responsible for many
important contributions.
 Probably the most important of their discoveries
was the magnetic compass dating about 1000
A.D. and in widespread use about 1125.
 Europe’s first reference to the compass was in
1190 in a poem, but was not widely used until
the 1400s.
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 By the mid 1400s in China, shipbuilding
was well established.
 Chinese ships from that period had
central rudders and watertight
compartments – these are part of
today’s modern ships.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-18
The Middle Ages (800 A.D. – 1400)
Chinese Explorations and Discoveries
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-19 to 2-22
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-19 to 2-20
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
The End of the Middle Ages and
a Route Around Africa
 The period of 1400-1700 is called the Renaissance. A new
interest in long ocean expeditions and travel in the 15th century
was motivated by economics, politics and religion.
 Three explorers tried to establish a route to the East around
Africa:
 The first of these was Prince Henry the Navigator of
Portugal in the early 1400s. He went down the west coast
of Africa, but did not find a route around the Cape of Good
Hope.
 The second was Bartholomeu Dias who completed a
voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1487, but did not
make it all the way to India.
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The End of the Middle Ages and
a Route Around Africa
Chapter 2 Pages 2-19 to 2-20
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
 The third was Vasco da Gamma (1469-1524). He led
the first expedition around the Cape of Good Hope all
the way to India.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Exploration of the New World
 Like other explorers of the time, Christopher
Columbus was seeking a route to Asia for trade
with Europe.
 Columbus’ estimate of the world’s size was too
small because he used Ptolemy’s estimates. This
is why he thought he could reach India easier by
sailing west instead of sailing east.
 When he landed on a Caribbean island, he
thought he’d reached India. It was later realized
he’d found a continent unknown to Europeans.
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 Between 1454-1512, Amerigo Vespucci voyaged to
South America.
 He explored much of the east coast, the mouth of
the Amazon River, and is credited as the first
European to recognize that South America was a
new continent.
 The Americas are named in honor of Vespucci.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Exploration of the New World
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 In the early 1500s, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa led an
expedition that crossed the Isthmus of Panama and
discovered the Pacific Ocean. Balboa was the first
European to sail in the Pacific.
 News that the Pacific lay beyond the Americas
renewed the hope that one could sail around the
world west-to-east.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Exploration of the New World
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Exploration of the New World
 In 1519, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan
led the first expedition to circumnavigate the world.
He had five ships and about 260 men.
 Magellan died in the Philippines in a fight with
islanders.
 One ship and 18 men
completed the
journey in 1522.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-20 to 2-22
European Voyages of Discovery (1400-1700)
Exploration of the New World
 The second successful circumnavigation of the world
was made in 1577 by Francis Drake.
 He left England for the New World with the
purpose of raiding Spanish ships and settlements
for treasure.
 Drake returned to England in 1580 where he was
knighted for his exploits as well as for bringing
back treasure and spices worth a fortune.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-23 to 2-32
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-23 to 2-26
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Cook’s Expeditions
 The voyages of Captain James Cook
receive credit as the first sea
expeditions devoted to methodical,
scientific oceanography:
 His reports changed the western
view of the world.
 He discovered Australia, New
Zealand, many islands in the
South Pacific, the Hawaiian
Islands, the West Coast of the US
and Canada, the Bering Strait and
the Antarctic Circle.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-23 to 2-26
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Cook’s Expeditions
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 A major contribution to Cook’s voyages
was the invention of the chronometer:
 In 1735, John Harrison invented a clock
that runs accurately at sea. This made it
possible to determine longitude accurately.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-23 to 2-26
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Cook’s Expeditions
H1
Harrison
H4
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-27
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
The United States Exploring Expedition
 Under command of Lt. Charles
Wilkes, it was one of the first
significant scientific expeditions
launched by the US:
 The objective was to explore
the southern Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans, to collect
specimens, and to map,
illustrate and provide text to
document their discoveries.
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The United States Exploring Expedition
Chapter 2 Pages 2-27
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
 The most outstanding achievement of the US
Exploring Expedition was proving the existence of
Antarctica.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-28
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Matthew Maury:
Father of Physical Oceanography
 Between 1842-1855, Matthew Maury
published many detailed works on sea
navigation. He earned global acclaim
for his work and his data was adopted
worldwide:
 In 1855, he published The Physical
Geography of the Sea, which is now
considered the first textbook on
modern oceanography and he is
remembered today as the father
of physical oceanography.
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Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
Chapter 2 Pages 2-29 to 2-30
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
 The Beagle began its five-year voyage with Charles
Darwin as the ship’s naturalist in 1831. The H.M.S.
Beagle ultimately circled the Earth.
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 Darwin noted that coral grows in relatively shallow,
warm, upper depths:
 But, coral reefs extend deeper than coral grows.
Darwin observed the massive reefs must form
when the sea floor slowly sinks and coral
grows upward from its base to remain in
shallow water.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-29 to 2-30
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
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 Darwin is renowned for his theories on natural
selection and the evolution of species.
 In 1859, he published On The Origin of Species By
Means Of Natural Selection.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-29 to 2-30
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
Darwin and the H.M.S. Beagle
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 The Challenger expedition (1872-1876), is known
and recognized as the first devoted entirely to marine
science:
 The two men responsible for the mission were
Scottish professor, Sir Charles
Wyville Thomson and British
naturalist, Sir John Murray.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-30 to 2-32
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
The Challenger Expedition
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-30 to 2-32
The Birth of Marine Science (1700-1900)
The Challenger Expedition
 Among its accomplishments and discoveries, the expedition:
 Took the first soundings deeper than 4,000 meters (13,123
feet) – 8,200 meters (26,900 feet) in the Marianas Trench.
 Captured biological samples in midwater and along the
bottom with a towed device.
 Discovered marine organisms in the deepest parts of the
ocean, contrary to popular belief at the time.
 Sampled and illustrated plankton in various
habitats and depths not previously studied.
 Cataloged and identified 715 new genera
and 4,717 new species.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-33 to 2-48
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-33 to 2-34
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
The Oceanography Explosion
 The Industrial Revolution spearheaded the growth
and expansion of marine sciences. This included:
 Better ships made of iron with steam engines.
 Improvements in the design and building of
research equipment.
 The advent of the submarine.
 Global conflict helping to
accelerate research in
science and technology.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-34 to 2-35
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Three Expeditions
 The German Meteor Expedition (1925)
 Crossed the Atlantic 14 times in two
years.
 Data collected established patterns
for ocean water circulation, nutrient
dispersal, and plankton growth.
 Primary accomplishment was
mapping the Atlantic seafloor
with echo-sounding technology.
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 The United States Atlantis Expedition – 1931
 The first ship specifically designed and built for
ocean studies.
 Atlantis added to the work of the Meteor as well as
confirmed the existence of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
and mapped it.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-34 to 2-35
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Three Expeditions
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Three Expeditions
Chapter 2 Pages 2-34 to 2-35
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
 The H.M.S. Challenger II Expedition – 1951
 Mission to measure the depths of the Atlantic,
Pacific, and Indian oceans.
 Used eco-sounding technology for mapping.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-C entury Marine Science
Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
 How the ocean was studied was changed forever by
the submersibles and self-contained diving:
 Instead of grabbing samples blindly, a scientist
could pick specific ones.
 Scientists could take delicate samples without
damaging them and living organisms without
killing them.
 Scientists can directly observe the geology, life,
and other phenomena without taking any samples.
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
 Three types of submersibles used for underwater
research:
 Bathysphere - operated only vertically.
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
 Three types of submersibles used for underwater
research:
 Bathyscaphe - operated much like a blimp air
ship by releasing ballast and had a small electric
motor to give it limited horizontal mobility.
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 Three types of submersibles used for underwater
research:
 Deep-diving submersibles - state of the art today,
far less fragile than bathyscaphes, easier to
launch and use in rough seas.
 This makes them suitable for more varied types of
research. Some even have robotic arms.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
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 In 1840, Augustus Siebe introduced the first practical
dive equipment; hard-hat diving that supplied air from
the surface through a hose.
 Used mainly for underwater construction, salvage,
and ship maintenance.
Limited because it is heavy
and requires a support
team and vessel.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
 In 1878, Englishman Henry Fleuss, introduced the
first workable self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus, called scuba today.
 In 1943, Jacques Cousteau
introduced the first practical scuba.
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
 Scuba is simple, relatively inexpensive and quite
portable, but places limits on depth and duration of
the dive.
 Scuba also has the advantage of dexterity.
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Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
 Hardsuits, such as the Newt Suit, merge the
technologies of scuba and submersibles, protecting
the wearer from pressure but allowing almost full
mobility, but they are more costly and complex than
scuba.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-36 to 2-42
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
Submersibles and Self-Contained Diving
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 Technology such as electronics and space travel
have provided important contributions to
oceanography.
 These include electronic navigation, remotely
operated vehicles (ROV), autonomous underwater
vehicles (AUV), drifters and ocean observation
satellites.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
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 Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) became
common in the late 1970s. ROV’s are:
 A small, unmanned submarine with propellers,
video camera, and an umbilical to the surface or to
a submersible.
 An economical way to match the capabilities of a
submersible and the dexterity of a scuba diver.
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
 Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) are:
 Untethered robotic devices propelled through the
water by self-contained power systems.
 Piloted by an onboard computer.
 Launched from the surface and are maneuverable
in three dimensions.
 Propelled by self-contained power systems.
Others use the difference in water layer
temperatures to glide.
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
 AUVs sample the ocean along precise
preprogrammed underwater paths.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
 Drifters are instrument packages that measure
temperature, salinity, pressure and currents.
 Drifters:
 Collect information and transmit it, with their exact
position, to a satellite system.
 Float at the surface while others descend as deep
as 2,000 meters (6,560 feet) for programmed
durations, then rise to the surface to transmit their
data.
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
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Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
 Satellites orbit the Earth and assist oceanographers
with global observations of the ocean.
 Satellites provide continuous measurements of
variables such as surface height, shape, temperature
and color, over the entire planet.
 They are an effective way for oceanographers to look
at very large areas of the world in a very short period.
 Information gathered from satellites
has largely replaced measurements
taken directly at sea.
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ROVs, AUVs, Drifters, Satellites and
Electronic Navigation
Chapter 2 Pages 2-43 to 2-47
Twentieth-Century Marine Science
 The first electronic navigation came into use in the
late 1960s. LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation).
Accuracy varied with distance from the transmitters.
 Today we use GPS - Global Positioning System.
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